Measuring & Mapping

Vernier Compass

Where, how far, and how much? People have invented an astonishing array of devices to answer seemingly simple questions like these. Measuring and mapping objects in the Museum's collections include the instruments of the famous—Thomas Jefferson's thermometer and a pocket compass used by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on their expedition across the American West. A timing device was part of the pioneering motion studies of Eadweard Muybridge in the late 1800s. Time measurement is represented in clocks from simple sundials to precise chronometers for mapping, surveying, and finding longitude. Everyday objects tell part of the story, too, from tape measures and electrical meters to more than 300 scales to measure food and drink. Maps of many kinds fill out the collections, from railroad surveys to star charts.

Resource Type: Thermometers

Solar Radiation Thermometer

In the late 18th century, scientists set out to determine the intensity of solar radiation overall, as well as the intensity of radiation in different parts of the spectrum.
Description
In the late 18th century, scientists set out to determine the intensity of solar radiation overall, as well as the intensity of radiation in different parts of the spectrum. In time they learned that the temperature of a black object was related to the intensity of the incident radiation and the movement of the ambient air. Negretti & Zambra’s solar radiation thermometer, the first commercial instrument suitable for this purpose, was unveiled in 1864. It had a blackened bulb, and was encased in a second glass tube from which the air had been evaporated. James J. Hicks obtained a British patent for a method of testing the vacuum of a solar thermometer in 1873, and described his solar radiation thermometer at a meeting of the British Meteorological Society in early 1874.
This example consists of a mercury-in-glass thermometer with a constriction in the stem just above the spherical bulb. The white enamel back of the stem is marked "202" and "J. Hicks. 8 Hatton Garn. London" and "Hicks's Patent No. 3647" and "14951" with the K/O monogram of the Kew Observatory. The clear front is graduated every degree F. from -5 to +192. This thermometer is encased in a glass jacket from which the air has been evacuated. The jacked is provided with two platinum electrodes that can be connected to a spark coil so that the vacuum can be checked, a feature described in Hicks' 1873 patent. It was made after the issuance of Hicks' patent in 1873 and before the expansion of his business to 8, 9, & 10 Hatton Garden in the 1880s.
Ref.: W. E. K. Middleton, A History of the Thermometer (Baltimore, 1966), pp. 162-164.
James J. Hicks, Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue of Standard, Self-Recording, and Other Meteorological Instruments (London, n.d.), pp. 60-61.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1873-1885
maker
J. J. Hicks
ID Number
PH.314560
accession number
204612
catalog number
314560

Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer

Charles F. Marvin and Milton Whitney, both of the U.S. Weather Bureau, introduced this type of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer in 1893. This example has a wood and brass frame with a brass band marked "HENRY J. GREEN B'KLYN N.Y.
Description
Charles F. Marvin and Milton Whitney, both of the U.S. Weather Bureau, introduced this type of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer in 1893. This example has a wood and brass frame with a brass band marked "HENRY J. GREEN B'KLYN N.Y. 12 IN." A brass plate on the frame is marked "No. 11 U.S. WEATHER BUREAU" and graduated every 5 degrees Fahrenheit from -10 to +150. The glass thermometer inside the frame is filled with mercury and alcohol. The back of the stem is milk glass. The clear front is marked "U.S. 11" and graduated every degree Fahrenheit from +5 to +150.
Ref: C. F. Marvin and M. Whitney, "Instructions for Use of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer," U.S. Weather Bureau Circular G (1894).
Location
Currently not on view
date made
after 1890
maker
H. J. Green
ID Number
PH.314541
catalog number
314541
accession number
204612

Maximum Thermometer

This is a mercury-in-glass Phillips-type maximum thermometer with a spherical bulb.
Description
This is a mercury-in-glass Phillips-type maximum thermometer with a spherical bulb. The tube has a white enamel back; the scale on the front extends from zero to +125 degrees (presumably Fahrenheit) graduated every degree, and is marked "9714." The supporting white porcelain plate is marked "MAXIMUM" and "L. CASELLA. MAKER TO THE ADMIRALTY, London" and "No. 9714." The plate, in turn, is mounted on a wood back.
In this design, an air bubble separates a small bit of mercury from the main part of the column. When the temperature falls, the detached mercury remains in place indicating the maximum temperature attained until reset by the observer. John Phillips, an English geologist, introduced the form at the 1832 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. In 1856 he showed an improved form made by Louis P. Casella of London. Casella would later boast that, next to Phillips, he deserved "the exclusive merit of the introduction and arrangement of these most perfect maximum thermometers" thad had been widely adopted in Britain, on the Continent, and in the United States.
Ref: L. P. Casella, Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue of Philosophical, Meteorological, Mathematical, Surveying, Optical and Photographic Instruments (London, 1860), p. 17.
Jack Morrell, John Phillips and the Business of Victorian Science (Aldershot, 2005).
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1865-1880
maker
L. P. Casella
ID Number
PH.326555
catalog number
326555
accession number
260956

Thermometer

This mercury-in-glass thermometer marked "Etabl. Poulenc Fréres" has a cylindrical bulb. The scale on the stem ranges from -10 to +60 degrees Centigrade. It was used by the Meteorological Service of the U.S. Army in France during World War I.Currently not on view
Description
This mercury-in-glass thermometer marked "Etabl. Poulenc Fréres" has a cylindrical bulb. The scale on the stem ranges from -10 to +60 degrees Centigrade. It was used by the Meteorological Service of the U.S. Army in France during World War I.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1900-1923
maker
Poulenc Freres
ID Number
PH.308196
catalog number
308196
accession number
70852

Minimum Thermometer

This is a Rutherford-type alcohol-in-glass minimum thermometer marked "Verre vert. minima de Rutherford. Etabl. Poulenc Fréres, a Paris." It was used by the Meteorological Service of the U.S. Army in France during World War I.Currently not on view
Description
This is a Rutherford-type alcohol-in-glass minimum thermometer marked "Verre vert. minima de Rutherford. Etabl. Poulenc Fréres, a Paris." It was used by the Meteorological Service of the U.S. Army in France during World War I.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1900-1923
maker
Poulenc Freres
ID Number
PH.308195
catalog number
308195
accession number
70852

Minimum Thermometer

This Rutherford-type alcohol-in-glass thermometer is mounted on a flat metal plate marked "H. J. GREEN N.Y." and "No. 2352" and "SIGNAL SERVICE U.S. ARMY." A white porcelain strip on the plate is graduated every 5 degrees Fahrenheit from 65 to 115. The stem is marked "U.S.
Description
This Rutherford-type alcohol-in-glass thermometer is mounted on a flat metal plate marked "H. J. GREEN N.Y." and "No. 2352" and "SIGNAL SERVICE U.S. ARMY." A white porcelain strip on the plate is graduated every 5 degrees Fahrenheit from 65 to 115. The stem is marked "U.S. 2352" and graduated (but not numbered) every degree. The whole is enclosed in an outer glass tube. It dates from the period 1885-1890 when Henry J. Green was working in New York.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1885-1890
maker
H. J. Green
ID Number
PH.314555
catalog number
314555
accession number
204612

Maximum and Minimum Thermometers

Sset of two glass thermometers, each with a grooved aluminum plate marked "H. J. GREEN B'KLYN. N.Y." and "SIGNAL CORPS, U.S. ARMY." One is also marked "No. 41500" and "MAXIMUM" and the other is marked "No. 44505" and "MINIMUM." Each stem has a milk white back.
Description
Sset of two glass thermometers, each with a grooved aluminum plate marked "H. J. GREEN B'KLYN. N.Y." and "SIGNAL CORPS, U.S. ARMY." One is also marked "No. 41500" and "MAXIMUM" and the other is marked "No. 44505" and "MINIMUM." Each stem has a milk white back. The clear front of the maximum stem is graduated every degree F. from -34 to +128. The clear front of the minimum stem is graduated every degree Fahrenheit from -34 to +112.
The thermometers are held in a Townsend support marked "Julien P. Friez & Sons." This support, which was introduced around 1905, enables the maximum thermometer to be released from its normal horizontal position and whirled rapidly around, and the minimum thermometer to be tilted so that the index can slide down to the end of the spirit column.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
after 1890
maker
H. J. Green
ID Number
PH.308198
catalog number
308198
accession number
70852
70852

Recording Thermometer

Negretti & Zambra introduced this type of instrument in 1874. The stem is U-shaped, with a small bend above the cylindrical bulb. In use, the thermometer would be hung with the bulb down.
Description
Negretti & Zambra introduced this type of instrument in 1874. The stem is U-shaped, with a small bend above the cylindrical bulb. In use, the thermometer would be hung with the bulb down. Rotating it one full turn would cause the mercury in the first half of the tube to flow into the second half, thereby recording the temperature at that moment. In use, it might be connected to a clock that would invert it at a selected time.
In this example, the mercury-in-glass thermometer is mounted on an ebony plate marked "NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA LONDON" and "RECORDING THERMOMETER." A white porcelain strip on the plate is marked "NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA'S PATENT. LONDON" and graduated every 5 degrees Fahrenheit from 0 to 125. A second graduation runs from -5 to +120. The side of the stem nearer the bulb is marked "Negretti & Zambra's Patent" and "62" and graduated (but not numbered) every degree Fahrenheit from -5 to +125. The other side is graduated (but not numbered) every degree from -5 to +120.
Ref: Negretti & Zambra, Encyclopaedic Illustrated and Descriptive Catalogue (London, after 1878), pp. 101-103.
Location
Currently not on view
maker
Negretti & Zambra
ID Number
PH.314554
catalog number
314554
accession number
204612

J. Green Mercury Thermometer

Mercury-in-glass thermometer with a cylindrical bulb, mounted on a flat brass plate marked "J. GREEN N.Y." and "SIG. SER. U.S.A." and "S 184" and graduated every degree Fahrenheit from -10 to +125. There are no graduations or marks on the stem.
Description
Mercury-in-glass thermometer with a cylindrical bulb, mounted on a flat brass plate marked "J. GREEN N.Y." and "SIG. SER. U.S.A." and "S 184" and graduated every degree Fahrenheit from -10 to +125. There are no graduations or marks on the stem. It was made between 1870 (when the Signal Service established a national weather service) and 1879 (when James Green took his nephew into partnership and began trading as J. & H. J. Green).
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1870-1879
maker
J. Green
ID Number
PH.317456
catalog number
317456
accession number
230396

Thermometer

This is a sensitive precision instrument that was probably used as a standard for evaluating instruments sent to meteorological field stations.
Description
This is a sensitive precision instrument that was probably used as a standard for evaluating instruments sent to meteorological field stations. The mercury-in-glass thermometer is mounted on a white porcelain plate marked "NEGRETTI & ZAMBRA, SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENT MAKERS, LONDON" and "ABSOLUTE" and "29" with the M/O monogram of the British Meteorological Office, the N/Z monogram of the firm, and the K/O monogram of the Kew Observatory.
The plate is graduated every 5 degrees from 245 to 325. The back of the stem is white enamel and marked "29" and with the M/O and N/Z monograms; the front is graduated every degree from +243 to +325 and numbered at 245, 273, and 320. It came to the Smithsonian from the U.S. Weather Bureau.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
early 20th century
maker
Negretti & Zambra
ID Number
PH.314556
accession number
204612
catalog number
314556

Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer

Charles F. Marvin and Milton Whitney, both of the U.S. Weather Bureau, introduced this type of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer in 1893. This example has a wood and brass frame. A brass plate on the frame is marked "H. J. GREEN B'KLYN N.Y." and "No. 8 U.S.
Description
Charles F. Marvin and Milton Whitney, both of the U.S. Weather Bureau, introduced this type of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer in 1893. This example has a wood and brass frame. A brass plate on the frame is marked "H. J. GREEN B'KLYN N.Y." and "No. 8 U.S. WEATHER BUREAU" and graduated every 5 degrees Fahrenheit from -20 to +170. The glass thermometer inside the frame is filled with mercury and alcohol. The back of the stem is milk glass. The clear front is marked "U.S. 8" and graduated every degree Fahrenheit from -20 to +180. The Weather Bureau transferred it to the Smithsonian in 1954.
Ref: C. F. Marvin and M. Whitney, "Instructions for Use of Combined Maximum and Minimum Soil Thermometer," U.S. Weather Bureau Circular G (1894).
Location
Currently not on view
date made
after 1890
maker
H. J. Green
ID Number
PH.314540
catalog number
314540
accession number
204612

Thermometer

Mercury-in-glass thermometer with a cylindrical bulb, and scale that extends from -38 to +20 degrees Centigrade. The inscription on the milk-white back reads “Centigrade C. Gerhardt, Bonn No.
Description
Mercury-in-glass thermometer with a cylindrical bulb, and scale that extends from -38 to +20 degrees Centigrade. The inscription on the milk-white back reads “Centigrade C. Gerhardt, Bonn No. 1940.” There is a hinged, black paper case.
Carl Gerhardt began making laboratory apparatus in 1872. This thermometer was used by chemists at the Johns Hopkins University, and may date from soon after the establishment of that school in 1876.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1876
maker
C. Gerhardt
ID Number
CH.315873
catalog number
315873
accession number
221777

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