Mexican America - History

Mexican America
The ancestors of Mexican Americans are many—railroad workers from Jalisco, Afro-Mexican founders of Los Angeles, Hispanos from Northern New Mexico, part-German Tejanos, indigenous Californians, and Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands, to name just a few. The objects displayed here tell stories about the people whose lives were shaped by their encounters and experiences within Mexican America. Their stories show the western face of the American experience of race, economics, religion, and government. They illustrate a struggle over history, nation, and the notion of "us."
Los mexicoamericanos provienen de múltiples ancestros —trabajadores ferroviarios de Jalisco, fundadores afromexicanos de Los Ángeles, hispanos del norte de Nuevo México, tejanos de ascendencia alemana, indígenas californianos y colonizadores españoles de las Islas Canarias, por nombrar sólo algunos. Los objetos exhibidos en este sitio web aluden a la historia de individuos cuyas vidas se han formado a través de encuentros y experiencias con la América mexicana. Sus historias reflejan el perfil oeste de la experiencia americana en términos de raza, economía, religión y gobierno. Ilustran una lucha en torno a la historia, la nación y la noción de “nosotros”.
Over time and space, the land that today is called Mexico has been many nations, great and small. Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Zuni, Yaqui—their names, like their languages, are many, and their cultural achievements and sensibilities diverse. From California to Guatemala, Mexico is a place of cultural and technological intersections. The ideas, designs, agriculture, and languages of its distinct indigenous peoples did not disappear with the imposition of new boundaries, religions, and institutions, either by Spain, the United States, or modern Mexico’s central government. The objects on view below, like the Aztec hoe money, the print of Hernán Cortés, and Mexican codices, tell their stories. The religious beliefs, political vision, language, and art of Mexican Americans, as well as their histories of discrimination and struggle, are rooted in diverse and mixed indigenous identities. The objects grouped together here, many of which were produced by people north of today’s U.S.-Mexico border and centuries after the Spanish colonial period, reflect the continuity and adaptation of Mexico’s pre-Hispanic foundations.
A lo largo del tiempo y el espacio, el territorio que hoy en día conocemos como México, ha devenido en muchas naciones, grandes y pequeñas. Olmecs, Mayas, Aztecas, Zunis, Yaquis—sus nombres, al igual que sus lenguas, son múltiples, y sus logros culturales y sus sensibilidades son diversas. Desde California hasta Guatemala, México es un lugar de intersecciones culturales y tecnológicas. Las ideas, diseños, agricultura y lenguaje de los distintos pueblos indígenas no desaparecieron con la imposición de las nuevas fronteras, religiones e instituciones, ya sea a manos de España, los Estados Unidos o el gobierno central moderno de México. Los objetos expuestos a continuación, como el tajadero azteca, la lámina de Hernán Cortés y los códices mexicanos, narran sus historias. Las creencias religiosas mexicoamericanas, su visión política, su lengua y su arte, así como las historias de discriminación y lucha de las que fueron objeto, tienen sus raíces en identidades diversas y mixtas. Los objetos que aquí se agrupan, muchos de ellos producidos por pueblos al norte de la actual frontera entre Estados Unidos y México, y siglos posteriores al período colonial español, reflejan la continuidad y la adaptación de las fundaciones mexicanas prehispanas.
Three factors were decisive in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Without warriors from neighboring Tlaxcala and other anti-Aztec allies, and the aid of an indigenous interpreter known as La Malinche, Hernán Cortés and his small Spanish army could not have laid siege to and destroyed the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, in 1521. The city was not prepared to resist the siege following a smallpox epidemic the year before. A disease introduced to the Americas by Europeans and Africans, it had decimated the population of the Aztec heartland in the previous year, and was spreading throughout Mesoamerica. The Spanish colonial social order imposed Catholicism and feudal partitions of lands. Where they did not encounter resistance, the Spanish would insert themselves at the top of pre-existing social hierarchies. Often, pre-Hispanic forms of labor organization, trade, and government were left intact or modified to suit colonial economic interests. But this process of Christianization, conquest, and even coexistence in the lands to the north and south of the Central Valley of Mexico, was centuries in the making.
American history in the broadest sense was created during these often violent encounters between Europeans, Native Americans, Africans, and their mixed descendants. Specifically, the history of the United States does not begin only in Jamestown or Plymouth but also in the Pueblo Nations and the Spanish and Mexican settlement of Texas, the Southwest, and California. The bilingual Spanish-Náhautl catechism, the hide painting, and the doll of La Llorona are just a few of the objects on view below that illustrate the dramatic cultural encounters that unfolded in what is today Mexico and the American West.
Hubo tres factores decisivos en la conquista española del Imperio Azteca. Sin la participación de guerreros provenientes de la vecina Tlaxcala y de otros pueblos aliados anti-aztecas, y sin la ayuda de la intérprete nativa conocida como La Malinche, Hernán Cortés y su pequeña armada española no hubieran podido sitiar y destruir la capital azteca de Tenochtitlán en 1521. La ciudad no estaba preparada para resistir el sitio tras la epidemia de viruela padecida (la enfermedad había sido introducida a América por los europeos y africanos), la cual había diezmado a la población del corazón azteca durante el año previo y se estaba diseminando a lo largo de Mesoamérica. El orden social colonial hispano resultó nuevo solo en parte, en la imposición del catolicismo y la división feudal de las tierras. Allí donde no hallaban resistencia, los españoles se insertaban a la cabeza de las jerarquías sociales preexistentes. A menudo, formas prehispánicas de organización laboral, comercio y gobierno se dejaron intactas o se modificaron parcialmente a fin de acomodar los intereses económicos coloniales. Pero este proceso de cristianización, conquista y hasta coexistencia, en los territorios al norte y sur del Valle Central de México transcurrió a lo largo de los siglos. La historia americana, en el sentido más amplio, se forjó a partir de estas confrontaciones frecuentemente violentas entre europeos, americanos nativos, africanos y sus descendientes mestizos. Específicamente, la historia de los Estados Unidos no comienza exclusivamente en Jamestown o Plymouth, sino también en las naciones de los indios Pueblo y los asentamientos españoles y mexicanos de Texas, el Sudoeste y California. Los objetos expuestos a continuación, como el catecismo bilingüe en español y náhuatl, la pintura sobre cuero y la muñeca de La Llorona, no son más que unas pocas ilustraciones de los dramáticos enfrentamientos culturales acontecidos en el territorio actual de México y el oeste americano.
Emblems of the American West like cowboys, rodeos, ranches, and missions (remember the Alamo?), have their origins in the histories of exchange and conflict between the Spanish, Mexican, and indigenous communities who lived in the territory between California and Texas. This centuries-long process reassembled their traditions and made a particular impact on land management.
In the early 1800s, American settlers were moving westward into Mexican territory. Mexico, the crown jewel among Spain’s colonies, and the staging post for its trade with Asia, became a sovereign nation in 1821 and controlled the greater western portion of what is today the United States. The American settlers encountered and then took-over the local social hierarchies that determined access to resources like land, water, trade, and labor. In addition to the Tejanos (who numbered about 5,000 at the time of Texan Independence), about 80,000 Mexican citizens were absorbed by the United States as a consequence of U.S. territorial gains in the Mexican-American War in 1848.
While the stories of this first generation of Mexican Americans are extremely diverse, dispossession from land is a recurrent theme. At the end of the century, new populations of Mexicans crossed the border, many seeking work on the railroads newly connecting the two countries. Replacing their Chinese and Japanese predecessors, Mexicans laborers, and their Mexican-American descendents, became the prescribed economic solution to the labor shortage in the booming economies of the new American West. For perspectives on the 19th century, take special note of the objects on view below like the 1879 Almanac, the spur, and the prints titled "Mexican Guerrilleros" and "The Storming of Chapultepec."
El origen de algunos emblemas del oeste americano, como los vaqueros, los rodeos, los ranchos y las misiones (¿recuerdan al Álamo?) se remonta a las historias de intercambio y conflicto entre las comunidades españolas, mexicanas e indígenas asentadas en el territorio comprendido entre California y Texas. Este proceso que se plasmó a lo largo de los siglos, reagrupó las tradiciones y tuvo un impacto singular en la administración de las tierras. A principios del 1800 los colonos americanos comenzaron a trasladarse hacia el oeste avanzando sobre el territorio mexicano. México, la joya entre las colonias españolas y escala en el comercio con Asia, se convirtió en una nación soberana en 1821, controlando la mayor porción occidental de lo que hoy en día es el territorio de Estados Unidos. Estos colonos tropezaron con jerarquías sociales que luego cooptaron y que determinaron el acceso a recursos como la tierra, el agua, el comercio y el trabajo. Además de los tejanos (quienes sumaban unos 5.000 para la época de la independencia de Texas), cerca de 80.000 ciudadanos mexicanos fueron asimilados por los Estados Unidos a consecuencia de las adquisiciones territoriales resultantes de la guerra mexicoamericana de 1848. Si bien las historias de estas primeras generaciones de mexicoamericanos son muy diversas, comparten el despojo de la tierra como tema recurrente. A fines de siglo cruzarían la frontera nuevas generaciones de mexicanos, muchos de ellos en busca de empleo en los ferrocarriles que conectaban de un nuevo modo a los dos países. La mano de obra mexicana, que reemplazó a sus predecesores chinos y japoneses, comenzó a convertirse en la solución económica esencial para la escasez de mano de obra en las florecientes economías del oeste americano. Se puede obtener una perspectiva del siglo XIX prestando atención especial a los objetos que se exponen a continuación, como el Almanaque de 1879, las espuelas y las ilustraciones tituladas “Guerrilleros Mexicanos” y “El Asalto de Chapultepec”.
The movements to reclaim the citizenship, land, labor, and educational rights of old and new generations of Mexican-Americans began in the small farming towns of South Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, and in industrial cities like El Paso, Los Angeles, and Chicago. The principles and symbols of Mexican American mobilization and social activism are rooted in both ancient and modern history. The images and language of the Mexican Revolution (1910 1920) and the African American civil rights movement cross-pollinated with Aztec migration stories, the legacy of Spanish colonization, and the experiences of WWII veterans. By the close of the 20th century, the ideas articulated by Mexican American social movements had crossed over into common understandings of race, immigration, national borders, and bilingualism.
Similar notions of ethnicity and culture would also shift for Mexican Americans who were increasingly grouped with other people of mixed Hispanic descent such as Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Central Americans, to become Latino—the nation’s largest ethnic minority. Many of the objects displayed here portray the struggles, aspirations, and sensibilities of Mexican American men and women in the 20th century. Take special note of the objects on view below—the Cesar Chavez poster, the short-handled hoe, the print titled "Work and Rest", and the paños titled "Valor" and "La Tierra Nueva en Aztlán."
Los movimientos en reclamo de los derechos a la ciudadanía, la tierra, el empleo y la educación de las viejas y de las nuevas generaciones de mexicoamericanos comenzaron en el seno de pequeños pueblos granjeros del sur de Texas, Nuevo México, Arizona y California, así como en ciudades industriales como El Paso, Los Ángeles y Chicago. Los principios y los símbolos de la movilización y el activismo social mexicoamericano tienen sus raíces tanto en la historia antigua como en la moderna. Las imágenes y el lenguaje de la Revolución Mexicana (1910-1920) y de los movimientos por los derechos civiles afroamericanos se entrecruzaron con las historias de la migración azteca, el legado de la colonización española y las experiencias de los veteranos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Para fines del siglo XX, las ideas expresadas por los movimientos sociales mexicoamericanos habían penetrado la percepción americana en temas como la raza, la inmigración, los límites fronterizos y el bilingüismo. Nociones similares sobre etnicismo y cultura también cambiarían en la apreciación de los mexicoamericanos, que se agrupaban cada vez más con otros individuos de descendencia hispana mestiza, tales como cubanos, puertorriqueños y centroamericanos, para convertirse en latinos –la minoría étnica mayoritaria en el país. Muchos de los objetos que aquí se exponen reflejan las luchas, aspiraciones y sensibilidades de hombres y mujeres mexicoamericanos del siglo XX. Debe prestarse especial atención a los objetos que se muestran a continuación –la lámina de César Chávez, azada de mango corto, ilustración titulada “Trabajo y Descanso” y paños titulados “Valor” y “La Tierra Nueva en Aztlán”.
The cultural expressions of Mexican Americans and their ancestors are as diverse as the regions and times that have shaped their histories. The popular arts produced within Mexican America, from saddles to santos and the theater of protest, all emerge from the rich but contested exchange of cultures between European and Native peoples, Catholic and Protestant, old immigrant and new. Traditions like the Hispanic art of New Mexico go back to the earliest days of the colonization of the upper valleys of the Rio Grande.
Other emblems of Mexican American culture are much younger, gaining currency in the increasingly urban youth culture of the World War II era. This generation of Mexican Americans was pivotal in the civil rights movements of the 1950s and 1960s. Its songs, attitudes, and organizing strategies laid the spiritual and political foundation for the dissident Chicano movement that materialized in the late 1960s. It was a period in which Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales’s epic poem "Yo Soy Joaquín" was made into an experimental film, Carlos Santana fused his psychedelic blues guitar with Afro-Cuban percussion, and Cesar Estrada Chavez and Dolores Huerta led Filipino and Mexican American farm workers on a five-year strike. The objects on view below demonstrate the range of cultural expressions within Mexican America—a Spanish Colonial Revival chair, Selena’s leather outfit, and images titled "Orale ese Vato" and "Mexican Boy."
Las expresiones culturales de los mexicoamericanos y sus ancestros son tan diversas como las regiones y las épocas que forjaron sus historias. Las artes populares generadas por la América Mexicana, desde monturas y santos hasta teatros de protesta, emergen en su totalidad de un rico pero reñido intercambio de culturas entre europeos y pueblos nativos, católicos y protestantes, viejos y nuevos inmigrantes. Tradiciones como el arte hispano de Nuevo México se remontan a los primeros días de la colonización de los valles altos de Río Grande. Otros emblemas de la cultura mexicoamericana son mucho más jóvenes y adquirieron actualidad dentro de la cultura cada vez más urbana y joven de la época de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Esta generación de mexicoamericanos fue crucial para los movimientos en pos de los derechos civiles de las décadas de 1950 y 1960. Sus canciones, sus actitudes y estrategias organizativas definieron los cimientos espirituales y políticos del movimiento disidente chicano que se materializó hacia finales de la década de 1960. Se trató de un período en el que el poema épico de Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzáles, “Yo Soy Joaquín”, se llevó al cine experimental, en el que Carlos Santana fusionó su psicodélica guitarra de blues con la percusión afrocubana, y en el que César Estrada Chávez y Dolores Huerta lideraron a los campesinos filipinos y mexicoamericanos durante una huelga de cinco años. Los objetos expuestos a continuación son ejemplo de la variedad de las expresiones culturales dentro de la América Mexicana —una silla perteneciente al Renacimiento Colonial Español, el traje de cuero de Selena y las imágenes tituladas “Órale ese Vato” y “Niño Mexicano”.
La información contenida en este sitio cuenta con el respaldo de un glosario, una bibliografía, artículos, mapas, archivos de imágenes y enlaces relacionados. Todo este material se halla incluido en la página derecursos. El glosario se ha diseñado con el propósito de servir como complemento a las descripciones de los objetos —puede hacerse clic sobre el enlace a continuación y abrirse una nueva ventana mientras se recorren los objetos.
"Mexican America - History" showing 4 items.
Máquina de Margaritas Heladas
- Description
- In the 70's, the margarita surpassed the martini as the most popular American cocktail and salsa surpassed ketchup as the most-used American condiment. Today, Mexican cuisine, in all its modified, regionalized, commercialized, and even highly processed varieties, has become as American as apple pie. Mariano Martinez, a young Texas entrepreneur, and his frozen margarita machine were at the crossroads of that revolution. The margarita was first made on the California-Mexican border, and became associated with the service of Mexican food, particularly, with one of its variants, Tex-Mex, a regional cuisine that became popular all across the United States. In 1971, Martinez adapted a soft serve ice cream machine to create the world's first frozen margarita machine for his new Dallas restaurant, Mariano's Mexican Cuisine. With their blenders hard-pressed to produce a consistent mix for the newly popular drink they made from Mariano's father's recipe, his bartenders were in rebellion. Then came inspiration in the form of a Slurpee machine at a 7-Eleven, a machine invented in Dallas in 1960 to make carbonated beverages slushy enough to drink through a straw. The soft-serve ice cream machine that Martinez adapted to serve his special drink was such a success that, according to Martinez, "it brought bars in Tex-Mex restaurants front and center. People came to Mariano's for that frozen margarita out of the machine." Never patented, many versions of the frozen margarita machine subsequently came into the market. After 34 years of blending lime juice, tequila, ice, and sugar for enthusiastic customers, the world's first frozen margarita machine was retired to the Smithsonian.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- ca 1970
- maker
- Sani-Serv
- ID Number
- 2005.0226.01
- catalog number
- 2005.0226.01
- accession number
- 2005.0226
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
United Farmworkers Poster
- Description
- Cesar Estrada Chavez, the founder of the United Farm Workers of America, is one of the most recognized Latino civil rights leaders in the United States. A Mexican American born in Yuma, Arizona, his family lost their small farm in the Great Depression (1930s). Like many Americans, they joined the migration to California and worked for low wages in its great agricultural fields. The agricultural industry in the West was a modern, market-driven phenomenon. In 1965, the United Farm Workers of America, led by Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta, began its five-year Delano grape strike against area grape growers for equal wages for foreign workers. Filipino and Mexican Americans who labored in California vineyards were suddenly visible in the eyes of American consumers. The movement to boycott table grapes mobilized students and educated consumers across America. The text on this poster, printed around 1970, describes Chavez's vision of political and economic emancipation for farm workers. La Causa, or The Cause, as it was known among Mexican Americans, was the political and artistic touchstone of the Chicano movement.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- associated person
- Chavez, Cesar
- associated institution
- United Farm Workers
- ID Number
- PL*296849.35
- catalog number
- 296849.35
- accession number
- 296849
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Work and Rest
- Description
- The Graphic Arts Collection of the National Museum of American History houses an extensive series of prints by archeologist and artist Jean Charlot (1898–1979), and prominent Los Angeles printer Lynton Kistler (1897–1993). Charlot, the French-born artist of this print, spent his early career during the 1920s in Mexico City. As an assistant to the socialist painter Diego Rivera, he studied muralism, a Mexican artistic movement that was revived throughout Latino communities in the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. This lithograph, titled Work and Rest contrasts the labor of an indigenous woman, grinding corn on a metate, with the slumber of her baby. Printed by Lynton Kistler in Los Angeles in 1956, it presents an image of a Mexican woman living outside the industrial age. This notion of "Old Mexico" unblemished by modernity appealed to many artists concerned in the early 20th century with the mechanization and materialism of American culture. It was also a vision that was packaged as an exotic getaway for many American tourists. It is worth contrasting the quaint appeal of an indigenous woman laboring over her tortillas with the actual industrialization of the tortilla industry. By 1956, this woman would likely have bought her tortillas in small stacks from the local tortillería, saving about six hours of processing, grinding, and cooking tortilla flour.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1956
- graphic artist
- Charlot, Jean
- printer
- Kistler, Lynton R.
- ID Number
- GA*23355.05
- catalog number
- 23355.05
- accession number
- 299563
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Mexican Kitchen
- Description
- The French-born artist Jean Charlot spent his early career during the 1920s in Mexico City. His 1948 lithograph depicts a scene from the domestic life of a Mexican indigenous woman, a favorite theme of the artist. Household work—without the aid of most, if any, electrical appliances—was a full-time job for many working-class and poor Mexican women, north and south of the border, well into the 20th century. Food preparation was especially labor-intensive. Corn had to be processed, wood gathered, and water fetched, in the midst of child rearing and other household duties. This was the daily fare of most women, who rarely worked outside the home after marriage. Mexican American women who found work in cities like El Paso in the early 20th century were either single or widowed. Many worked as domestic servants, others in industrial laundries or textile mills. Like today, some women turned to their kitchens to earn a living, making meager profits selling prepared food on the street to Mexican American workers and Mexican migrants.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1948
- graphic artist
- Charlot, Jean
- ID Number
- GA*23377
- catalog number
- 23377
- accession number
- 299563
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center






