Mexican America - History

Mexican America
The ancestors of Mexican Americans are many—railroad workers from Jalisco, Afro-Mexican founders of Los Angeles, Hispanos from Northern New Mexico, part-German Tejanos, indigenous Californians, and Spanish settlers from the Canary Islands, to name just a few. The objects displayed here tell stories about the people whose lives were shaped by their encounters and experiences within Mexican America. Their stories show the western face of the American experience of race, economics, religion, and government. They illustrate a struggle over history, nation, and the notion of "us."
Los mexicoamericanos provienen de múltiples ancestros —trabajadores ferroviarios de Jalisco, fundadores afromexicanos de Los Ángeles, hispanos del norte de Nuevo México, tejanos de ascendencia alemana, indígenas californianos y colonizadores españoles de las Islas Canarias, por nombrar sólo algunos. Los objetos exhibidos en este sitio web aluden a la historia de individuos cuyas vidas se han formado a través de encuentros y experiencias con la América mexicana. Sus historias reflejan el perfil oeste de la experiencia americana en términos de raza, economía, religión y gobierno. Ilustran una lucha en torno a la historia, la nación y la noción de “nosotros”.
Over time and space, the land that today is called Mexico has been many nations, great and small. Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Zuni, Yaqui—their names, like their languages, are many, and their cultural achievements and sensibilities diverse. From California to Guatemala, Mexico is a place of cultural and technological intersections. The ideas, designs, agriculture, and languages of its distinct indigenous peoples did not disappear with the imposition of new boundaries, religions, and institutions, either by Spain, the United States, or modern Mexico’s central government. The objects on view below, like the Aztec hoe money, the print of Hernán Cortés, and Mexican codices, tell their stories. The religious beliefs, political vision, language, and art of Mexican Americans, as well as their histories of discrimination and struggle, are rooted in diverse and mixed indigenous identities. The objects grouped together here, many of which were produced by people north of today’s U.S.-Mexico border and centuries after the Spanish colonial period, reflect the continuity and adaptation of Mexico’s pre-Hispanic foundations.
A lo largo del tiempo y el espacio, el territorio que hoy en día conocemos como México, ha devenido en muchas naciones, grandes y pequeñas. Olmecs, Mayas, Aztecas, Zunis, Yaquis—sus nombres, al igual que sus lenguas, son múltiples, y sus logros culturales y sus sensibilidades son diversas. Desde California hasta Guatemala, México es un lugar de intersecciones culturales y tecnológicas. Las ideas, diseños, agricultura y lenguaje de los distintos pueblos indígenas no desaparecieron con la imposición de las nuevas fronteras, religiones e instituciones, ya sea a manos de España, los Estados Unidos o el gobierno central moderno de México. Los objetos expuestos a continuación, como el tajadero azteca, la lámina de Hernán Cortés y los códices mexicanos, narran sus historias. Las creencias religiosas mexicoamericanas, su visión política, su lengua y su arte, así como las historias de discriminación y lucha de las que fueron objeto, tienen sus raíces en identidades diversas y mixtas. Los objetos que aquí se agrupan, muchos de ellos producidos por pueblos al norte de la actual frontera entre Estados Unidos y México, y siglos posteriores al período colonial español, reflejan la continuidad y la adaptación de las fundaciones mexicanas prehispanas.
Three factors were decisive in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. Without warriors from neighboring Tlaxcala and other anti-Aztec allies, and the aid of an indigenous interpreter known as La Malinche, Hernán Cortés and his small Spanish army could not have laid siege to and destroyed the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán, in 1521. The city was not prepared to resist the siege following a smallpox epidemic the year before. A disease introduced to the Americas by Europeans and Africans, it had decimated the population of the Aztec heartland in the previous year, and was spreading throughout Mesoamerica. The Spanish colonial social order imposed Catholicism and feudal partitions of lands. Where they did not encounter resistance, the Spanish would insert themselves at the top of pre-existing social hierarchies. Often, pre-Hispanic forms of labor organization, trade, and government were left intact or modified to suit colonial economic interests. But this process of Christianization, conquest, and even coexistence in the lands to the north and south of the Central Valley of Mexico, was centuries in the making.
American history in the broadest sense was created during these often violent encounters between Europeans, Native Americans, Africans, and their mixed descendants. Specifically, the history of the United States does not begin only in Jamestown or Plymouth but also in the Pueblo Nations and the Spanish and Mexican settlement of Texas, the Southwest, and California. The bilingual Spanish-Náhautl catechism, the hide painting, and the doll of La Llorona are just a few of the objects on view below that illustrate the dramatic cultural encounters that unfolded in what is today Mexico and the American West.
Hubo tres factores decisivos en la conquista española del Imperio Azteca. Sin la participación de guerreros provenientes de la vecina Tlaxcala y de otros pueblos aliados anti-aztecas, y sin la ayuda de la intérprete nativa conocida como La Malinche, Hernán Cortés y su pequeña armada española no hubieran podido sitiar y destruir la capital azteca de Tenochtitlán en 1521. La ciudad no estaba preparada para resistir el sitio tras la epidemia de viruela padecida (la enfermedad había sido introducida a América por los europeos y africanos), la cual había diezmado a la población del corazón azteca durante el año previo y se estaba diseminando a lo largo de Mesoamérica. El orden social colonial hispano resultó nuevo solo en parte, en la imposición del catolicismo y la división feudal de las tierras. Allí donde no hallaban resistencia, los españoles se insertaban a la cabeza de las jerarquías sociales preexistentes. A menudo, formas prehispánicas de organización laboral, comercio y gobierno se dejaron intactas o se modificaron parcialmente a fin de acomodar los intereses económicos coloniales. Pero este proceso de cristianización, conquista y hasta coexistencia, en los territorios al norte y sur del Valle Central de México transcurrió a lo largo de los siglos. La historia americana, en el sentido más amplio, se forjó a partir de estas confrontaciones frecuentemente violentas entre europeos, americanos nativos, africanos y sus descendientes mestizos. Específicamente, la historia de los Estados Unidos no comienza exclusivamente en Jamestown o Plymouth, sino también en las naciones de los indios Pueblo y los asentamientos españoles y mexicanos de Texas, el Sudoeste y California. Los objetos expuestos a continuación, como el catecismo bilingüe en español y náhuatl, la pintura sobre cuero y la muñeca de La Llorona, no son más que unas pocas ilustraciones de los dramáticos enfrentamientos culturales acontecidos en el territorio actual de México y el oeste americano.
Emblems of the American West like cowboys, rodeos, ranches, and missions (remember the Alamo?), have their origins in the histories of exchange and conflict between the Spanish, Mexican, and indigenous communities who lived in the territory between California and Texas. This centuries-long process reassembled their traditions and made a particular impact on land management.
In the early 1800s, American settlers were moving westward into Mexican territory. Mexico, the crown jewel among Spain’s colonies, and the staging post for its trade with Asia, became a sovereign nation in 1821 and controlled the greater western portion of what is today the United States. The American settlers encountered and then took-over the local social hierarchies that determined access to resources like land, water, trade, and labor. In addition to the Tejanos (who numbered about 5,000 at the time of Texan Independence), about 80,000 Mexican citizens were absorbed by the United States as a consequence of U.S. territorial gains in the Mexican-American War in 1848.
While the stories of this first generation of Mexican Americans are extremely diverse, dispossession from land is a recurrent theme. At the end of the century, new populations of Mexicans crossed the border, many seeking work on the railroads newly connecting the two countries. Replacing their Chinese and Japanese predecessors, Mexicans laborers, and their Mexican-American descendents, became the prescribed economic solution to the labor shortage in the booming economies of the new American West. For perspectives on the 19th century, take special note of the objects on view below like the 1879 Almanac, the spur, and the prints titled "Mexican Guerrilleros" and "The Storming of Chapultepec."
El origen de algunos emblemas del oeste americano, como los vaqueros, los rodeos, los ranchos y las misiones (¿recuerdan al Álamo?) se remonta a las historias de intercambio y conflicto entre las comunidades españolas, mexicanas e indígenas asentadas en el territorio comprendido entre California y Texas. Este proceso que se plasmó a lo largo de los siglos, reagrupó las tradiciones y tuvo un impacto singular en la administración de las tierras. A principios del 1800 los colonos americanos comenzaron a trasladarse hacia el oeste avanzando sobre el territorio mexicano. México, la joya entre las colonias españolas y escala en el comercio con Asia, se convirtió en una nación soberana en 1821, controlando la mayor porción occidental de lo que hoy en día es el territorio de Estados Unidos. Estos colonos tropezaron con jerarquías sociales que luego cooptaron y que determinaron el acceso a recursos como la tierra, el agua, el comercio y el trabajo. Además de los tejanos (quienes sumaban unos 5.000 para la época de la independencia de Texas), cerca de 80.000 ciudadanos mexicanos fueron asimilados por los Estados Unidos a consecuencia de las adquisiciones territoriales resultantes de la guerra mexicoamericana de 1848. Si bien las historias de estas primeras generaciones de mexicoamericanos son muy diversas, comparten el despojo de la tierra como tema recurrente. A fines de siglo cruzarían la frontera nuevas generaciones de mexicanos, muchos de ellos en busca de empleo en los ferrocarriles que conectaban de un nuevo modo a los dos países. La mano de obra mexicana, que reemplazó a sus predecesores chinos y japoneses, comenzó a convertirse en la solución económica esencial para la escasez de mano de obra en las florecientes economías del oeste americano. Se puede obtener una perspectiva del siglo XIX prestando atención especial a los objetos que se exponen a continuación, como el Almanaque de 1879, las espuelas y las ilustraciones tituladas “Guerrilleros Mexicanos” y “El Asalto de Chapultepec”.
The movements to reclaim the citizenship, land, labor, and educational rights of old and new generations of Mexican-Americans began in the small farming towns of South Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, and in industrial cities like El Paso, Los Angeles, and Chicago. The principles and symbols of Mexican American mobilization and social activism are rooted in both ancient and modern history. The images and language of the Mexican Revolution (1910 1920) and the African American civil rights movement cross-pollinated with Aztec migration stories, the legacy of Spanish colonization, and the experiences of WWII veterans. By the close of the 20th century, the ideas articulated by Mexican American social movements had crossed over into common understandings of race, immigration, national borders, and bilingualism.
Similar notions of ethnicity and culture would also shift for Mexican Americans who were increasingly grouped with other people of mixed Hispanic descent such as Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Central Americans, to become Latino—the nation’s largest ethnic minority. Many of the objects displayed here portray the struggles, aspirations, and sensibilities of Mexican American men and women in the 20th century. Take special note of the objects on view below—the Cesar Chavez poster, the short-handled hoe, the print titled "Work and Rest", and the paños titled "Valor" and "La Tierra Nueva en Aztlán."
Los movimientos en reclamo de los derechos a la ciudadanía, la tierra, el empleo y la educación de las viejas y de las nuevas generaciones de mexicoamericanos comenzaron en el seno de pequeños pueblos granjeros del sur de Texas, Nuevo México, Arizona y California, así como en ciudades industriales como El Paso, Los Ángeles y Chicago. Los principios y los símbolos de la movilización y el activismo social mexicoamericano tienen sus raíces tanto en la historia antigua como en la moderna. Las imágenes y el lenguaje de la Revolución Mexicana (1910-1920) y de los movimientos por los derechos civiles afroamericanos se entrecruzaron con las historias de la migración azteca, el legado de la colonización española y las experiencias de los veteranos de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Para fines del siglo XX, las ideas expresadas por los movimientos sociales mexicoamericanos habían penetrado la percepción americana en temas como la raza, la inmigración, los límites fronterizos y el bilingüismo. Nociones similares sobre etnicismo y cultura también cambiarían en la apreciación de los mexicoamericanos, que se agrupaban cada vez más con otros individuos de descendencia hispana mestiza, tales como cubanos, puertorriqueños y centroamericanos, para convertirse en latinos –la minoría étnica mayoritaria en el país. Muchos de los objetos que aquí se exponen reflejan las luchas, aspiraciones y sensibilidades de hombres y mujeres mexicoamericanos del siglo XX. Debe prestarse especial atención a los objetos que se muestran a continuación –la lámina de César Chávez, azada de mango corto, ilustración titulada “Trabajo y Descanso” y paños titulados “Valor” y “La Tierra Nueva en Aztlán”.
The cultural expressions of Mexican Americans and their ancestors are as diverse as the regions and times that have shaped their histories. The popular arts produced within Mexican America, from saddles to santos and the theater of protest, all emerge from the rich but contested exchange of cultures between European and Native peoples, Catholic and Protestant, old immigrant and new. Traditions like the Hispanic art of New Mexico go back to the earliest days of the colonization of the upper valleys of the Rio Grande.
Other emblems of Mexican American culture are much younger, gaining currency in the increasingly urban youth culture of the World War II era. This generation of Mexican Americans was pivotal in the civil rights movements of the 1950s and 1960s. Its songs, attitudes, and organizing strategies laid the spiritual and political foundation for the dissident Chicano movement that materialized in the late 1960s. It was a period in which Rodolfo "Corky" Gonzales’s epic poem "Yo Soy Joaquín" was made into an experimental film, Carlos Santana fused his psychedelic blues guitar with Afro-Cuban percussion, and Cesar Estrada Chavez and Dolores Huerta led Filipino and Mexican American farm workers on a five-year strike. The objects on view below demonstrate the range of cultural expressions within Mexican America—a Spanish Colonial Revival chair, Selena’s leather outfit, and images titled "Orale ese Vato" and "Mexican Boy."
Las expresiones culturales de los mexicoamericanos y sus ancestros son tan diversas como las regiones y las épocas que forjaron sus historias. Las artes populares generadas por la América Mexicana, desde monturas y santos hasta teatros de protesta, emergen en su totalidad de un rico pero reñido intercambio de culturas entre europeos y pueblos nativos, católicos y protestantes, viejos y nuevos inmigrantes. Tradiciones como el arte hispano de Nuevo México se remontan a los primeros días de la colonización de los valles altos de Río Grande. Otros emblemas de la cultura mexicoamericana son mucho más jóvenes y adquirieron actualidad dentro de la cultura cada vez más urbana y joven de la época de la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Esta generación de mexicoamericanos fue crucial para los movimientos en pos de los derechos civiles de las décadas de 1950 y 1960. Sus canciones, sus actitudes y estrategias organizativas definieron los cimientos espirituales y políticos del movimiento disidente chicano que se materializó hacia finales de la década de 1960. Se trató de un período en el que el poema épico de Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzáles, “Yo Soy Joaquín”, se llevó al cine experimental, en el que Carlos Santana fusionó su psicodélica guitarra de blues con la percusión afrocubana, y en el que César Estrada Chávez y Dolores Huerta lideraron a los campesinos filipinos y mexicoamericanos durante una huelga de cinco años. Los objetos expuestos a continuación son ejemplo de la variedad de las expresiones culturales dentro de la América Mexicana —una silla perteneciente al Renacimiento Colonial Español, el traje de cuero de Selena y las imágenes tituladas “Órale ese Vato” y “Niño Mexicano”.
La información contenida en este sitio cuenta con el respaldo de un glosario, una bibliografía, artículos, mapas, archivos de imágenes y enlaces relacionados. Todo este material se halla incluido en la página derecursos. El glosario se ha diseñado con el propósito de servir como complemento a las descripciones de los objetos —puede hacerse clic sobre el enlace a continuación y abrirse una nueva ventana mientras se recorren los objetos.
"Mexican America - History" showing 34 items.
Page 1 of 4
Retablo del Santo Niño de Atoche
- Description
- The image shown here represents El Santo Niño de Atoche, a depiction of the Christ child common throughout Mexico and the American Southwest. Made by Rafael Aragón in Santa Fe, this particular image is from a retablo, a kind of Catholic devotional art. Aragón came from a family of santeros (religious artisans) who worked during the golden age of Spanish colonial art in New Mexico in the first part of the 1800s. In isolated communities where there were few priests, religious art within the home played a huge role in promoting Catholic beliefs and maintaining religious faith. When this retablo was made, between 1840 and 1850, New Mexico was the most populated region of Mexico's northern territories. Its ancient colonial history was shaped by violent contests over land, trade, and religion between Spanish settlers and various indigenous communities. The exchanges between these peoples, and then later, between immigrants from Mexico and the eastern United States, created several unique cultures in New Mexico. The phenomenon of tourism, beginning in the late 1800s, further transformed New Mexico and its art and craft traditions. Santeros and other artisans are still producing religious images like this retablo, though today many are valued for decorative rather than devotional use.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1840 - 1850
- artist
- Aragon, Rafael
- ID Number
- CL*67.806
- accession number
- 269937
- catalog number
- 67.806
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Vela de Pancho Villa
- Description
- Pancho Villa is one of the most recognizable leaders of the Mexico Revolution. This civil war, which lasted from 1910-1921, was fought to curb U.S. corporate interests and to redistribute agricultural lands, especially for indigenous communities. It was a social revolution that reasserted popular culture and the value of "Mexican-ness." It was also a prolonged, violent conflict that spread death and hunger throughout Mexico, spurring migrants north, mostly into El Paso, Los Angeles, and other historically Mexican U.S. cities. With them came ideas, images, and language for organizing laborers and the rural poor. These ideas and images percolated in the popular culture of Mexican Americans and reappear in the art and activism of Chicanos in the 1960s and 1970s. On the back of this candle depicting Villa are prayers written in English and Spanish asking him to grant the petitioner some of the insight and prowess that enshrined this bandit, social revolutionary, and media star in the mythology of modern Mexico.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- depicted
- Villa, Pancho
- ID Number
- 1991.0741.13
- catalog number
- 1991.0741.13
- accession number
- 1991.0741
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
"La Tierra Nueva en Aztlán"
- Description
- The evolving civil rights movement of the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s revolutionized the consciousness of young people across the United States. As in African American communities, a new sense of mobilization spread among Mexican Americans. Many adopted a more political identity—chicano and chicana—and explored their history, which was omitted from school textbooks. The Chicano movement sought to remedy the injustices experienced by many Mexican Americans, from substandard education and housing to working conditions. Many symbols and ideas of the Chicano movement were taken from the pre-Hispanic past, especially Aztec history. Aztlán, the original homeland in the Aztec migration stories, has an important place in Chicano mythology. As a symbolic reclamation of their place in American history, Chicanos locate Aztlán in the Southwest United States, in the area conquered during the Mexican-American War. The image shown here, by Manuel Moya, is an ink drawing done on a handkerchief known as a paño. Paños are graphic art works drawn on handkerchiefs by Chicano prisoners in California, Texas, and the Southwest. Titled, La Tierra Nueva en Aztlán, or The New Land in Aztlán, combines the images of the Aztec past with a Pancho Villa-like figure from the Mexican Revolution.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1986
- artist
- Moya, Manuel
- ID Number
- 1991.0431.01
- catalog number
- 1991.0431.01
- accession number
- 1991.0431
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
"Our Lady of Guadalupe"
- Description
- The Virgin of Guadalupe is a symbol of religious faith and nationhood. As the patron saint of Mexico, she was among the first manifestations of the Virgin Mary in the newly colonized Americas. In a country that has historically been divided in many ways—regionally, ethnically, linguistically, and economically—the Virgin of Guadalupe brings together all Mexicans, north and south of the border. It is no coincidence that many of her devotees see their indigenous heritage reflected in her brown skin—according to tradition, she first appeared to an indigenous Mexican, Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin, in 1531. Not coincidentally, the site of her appearance, a hill in Mexico City, had been a recently destroyed temple to the Aztec earth goddess, Tonatzin. While echoing the pre-Hispanic past, the Virgin of Guadalupe is an emblem of unity and perseverance that has been invoked in struggles ranging from the Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821) to the organizing and activism of the United Farm Workers of America in the 1960s and 1970s. This image is taken from a paño made by Walter Baca in 1991. Paños are graphic art works designed on handkerchiefs by Chicano prisoners in California, Texas, and the Southwest.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1991
- artist
- Baca, Walter
- ID Number
- 1991.0431.02
- catalog number
- 1991.0431.02
- accession number
- 1991.0431
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
"Tierra o Muerte"
- Description
- Following the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the annexation of Texas, the land claims of many Mexican families were not respected, either by the new English-speaking settlers or by the U.S. government. Dispossession from family- and community-owned lands dealt a severe economic blow to the livelihood of generations of Mexican Americans. The issue of land evokes especially bitter memories in New Mexico. In 1967, the year this poster was made with the slogan Tierra o Muerte, meaning Land or Death, a Hispanic land rights organization called La Alianza, led by Reies López Tijerina, raided the Rio Arriba County courthouse in Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico. In addition to reclaiming land from the government of New Mexico, the goals of the raid were to free imprisoned Alianza members and to arrest the district attorney who was prosecuting them as communists and outside agitators. The raid on the courthouse was ultimately unsuccessful and Tijerina served time in a federal prison. Although seen by some as a divisive figure, Reies López Tijerina was as recognizable as Cesar Chavez to many Chicano activists of the late 1960s. Mirroring similar political tensions in the African American community, Chicano civil rights activists were torn between leaders such as Chavez, who advocated nonviolence, and leaders like Tijerina, whose political strategy was decidedly more militant.
- Date made
- 1967
- ID Number
- 1990.0654.01
- catalog number
- 1990.0654.01
- accession number
- 1990.0654
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Spanish Colonial Revival Chair
- Description
- The production and exchange of ceramics, metalwork, textiles, and other crafts were part of the economies of the Southwest and Mesoamerica centuries before the arrival of Africans, Spaniards, and other Europeans in the Americas. While central Mexico was almost immediately connected to the global economy after the Spanish conquest in the early 1520s, New Mexico and other frontier areas remained isolated and relatively self-sufficient until the mid-1800s. Once New Mexico was incorporated into the United States however, wagon trains and then railroads brought in new English-speaking residents and tourists, unsettling the economies of the established Hispano and Pueblo communities. By the early 20th century, a new livelihood emerged for local artisans—the creation of crafts for the tourist market. The tourist market demanded products that were as much about stereotypes as they were about authenticity. This Spanish Colonial Revival chair was made by Hipólito Sisneros in 1945 while he was a student at the Taos Vocational Educational School. Using a decorative technique called chip-carving, Sisneros crafted this chair in the style of New Mexican furniture from the early 1800s. After the 1930s, many Hispanics and Native Americans were enrolled in craft schools like this in an attempt by the state of New Mexico to support local craft cooperatives that targeted Anglo-American consumers.
- date made
- 1945-1946
- originator
- Taos Municipal School
- maker
- Sisneros, H.
- ID Number
- 1991.0712.01
- accession number
- 1991.0712
- catalog number
- 1991.0712.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Orale ese Vato
- Description
- As this paño humorously titled Orale ese vato (Spanish for roughly, right on, man) shows, one characteristic of Chicano art is that it avidly consumes and reconfigures both American and Mexican pop culture with its own slang, looks, and attitude. A paño is a hand-drawn handkerchief traditionally designed by Chicano prisoners. Like a letter that retells memories of both good and bad times, paños are often mailed as gifts to friends and loved ones. Valued as a vibrant popular art that overlaps with muralism, tattoo design, graffiti, and auto airbrushing, paños and their makers are receiving increased exposure for their visual storytelling abilities. An illustrator and a muralist known for depicting Chicano themes, Walter Baca (1947-1993) designed this paño in New Mexico in 1992.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1992
- artist
- Baca, Walter R.
- ID Number
- 1993.0150.02
- catalog number
- 1993.0150.02
- accession number
- 1993.0150
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
"Valor"
- Description
- Mexican Americans have served in U.S. armed forces since the Civil War. But it was the generation of Mexican Americans returning from World War II who mobilized their communities and changed the political landscape of the West. Laying the groundwork for the Chicano movement of the 1960s, organizations like the American G.I. Forum began advocating on behalf of Hispanic veterans who were denied the educational, health care, housing, and other rights guaranteed by the G.I. Bill. Often working in concert with the League of Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and other Latino civil rights organizations, the Texas-based G.I. Forum soon engaged in broader social battles over school desegregation and voter registration rights. Today, the G.I. Forum is a nationally recognized source of scholarships among Mexican American students. This paño, titled Valor, the Spanish word for courage, commemorates the Korean War Medal of Honor winner Rodolfo Hernández. Paños are an art form created traditionally by Chicano prisoners on white handkerchiefs. Often mailed as gifts to friends and families, the images on paños remember loved ones, depict important memories, and tell stories about the dark side of life, as well as redemption. The maker of this paño is unknown.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1988
- depicted
- Hernandez, Rudy
- ID Number
- 1993.0150.06
- catalog number
- 1993.0150.06
- accession number
- 1993.0150
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Muñeca de La Llorona
- Description
- La Llorona, or the Weeping Woman, is the frightening figure of a heartbroken woman who drowned her children and haunts the night, especially by riversides. Her story is repeated to children throughout Latin America, with numerous versions circulating throughout Mexico and the American Southwest. She has been identified as the Aztec goddess Coatlicue, who, according to one legend, was heard weeping for her Aztec children on the eve of the Spanish conquest. Some identify her as the damned ghost of a poor woman from Ciudad Juárez, who stabbed her children and disposed of them in the Rio Grande in order to win the affection of a wealthy man. According to another legend, La Llorona is actually La Malinche, the crucial interpreter and lover of Hernán Cortés. After the fall of the Aztec capital, and having borne Cortés's first son, La Malinche was replaced by Cortés's first wife (who had been awaiting him in Cuba) and was hastily married off to one of his Spanish companions. La Malinche and La Llorona, whether considered as overlapping or totally separate figures, reappear frequently in Mexican popular culture, north and south of the border.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- ca 1990-1991
- maker
- McFall, Jo Anne
- ID Number
- 1991.0859.04
- catalog number
- 1991.0859.04
- accession number
- 1991.0859
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
The Last Moment of the Emperor Maximilian
- Description
- This relief print from The Magazine of Art dramatically illustrates the final moments before the execution of the Mexican Emperor Maximilian I in 1867. An Austrian noble by birth, Maximilian was installed by Napoleon III of France. French forces had invaded Mexico in 1862, after President Benito Juárez suspended payments on its foreign debt. Despite a major victory by Mexican forces at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862, the French seized control of large sections of Mexico, including the capital. Maximilian was initially supported by Mexican conservatives in a backlash against the changes instituted by the Mexican War of Reform (1857–1861). However, once on the throne, his support of a free press, open universities, land reform, and other progressive ideas of the day proved to be out of step with his conservative constituency and the Catholic Church. Menaced by the government of the United States, victorious after its own civil war, and the rising success of Mexican nationalist forces, the French withdrew their military support of Maximilian, the last emperor of Mexico. This historic image is one of 45,000 artistic and commercials prints housed in the Graphic Arts Collection of the National Museum of American History.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- ca 1890
- graphic artist
- Babbage, T.
- publisher
- Magazine of Art
- ID Number
- 1996.0197.350
- catalog number
- 1996.0197.350
- accession number
- 1996.0197
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
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