Science & Mathematics - Overview
The Museum's collections hold thousands of objects related to chemistry, biology, physics, astronomy, and other sciences. Instruments range from early American telescopes to lasers. Rare glassware and other artifacts from the laboratory of Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, are among the scientific treasures here. A Gilbert chemistry set of about 1937 and other objects testify to the pleasures of amateur science. Artifacts also help illuminate the social and political history of biology and the roles of women and minorities in science.
The mathematics collection holds artifacts from slide rules and flash cards to code-breaking equipment. More than 1,000 models demonstrate some of the problems and principles of mathematics, and 80 abstract paintings by illustrator and cartoonist Crockett Johnson show his visual interpretations of mathematical theorems.
"Science & Mathematics - Overview" showing 504 items.
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Flexible Polyhedron
- Description
- The mathematician Leonard Euler once wrote,"A closed spatial figure allows no changes, as long as it is not ripped apart." Proving the "rigidity" of polyhedra was another matter. In 1813, Augustin-Louis Cauchy showed that a convex polyhedral surface is rigid if its flat polygonal faces are held rigid. In 1974, Herman Gluck proved that almost all triangulated spherical surfaces were rigid. However, in 1977 Robert Connelly of Cornell University found a counterexample, that is to say a flexible polyhedron. He built this model of such a surface some years later. It is made of cardboard and held together with duct tape. Two cutout plastic windows allow the viewer to observe changes when the polyhedron is flexed. The top section has 12 large faces and a six-faced appendage. The bottom section has 12 corresponding faces but no appendage.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1985
- maker
- Connelly, Robert
- ID Number
- 1990.0492.01
- accession number
- 1990.0492
- catalog number
- 1990.0492.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Underwood Sundstrand 11140P Adding Machine
- Description
- American religious organizations have long used computing devices. The First Baptist Church of Suitland, Maryland owned this machine.
- The ten-key printing electric adding machine has a block of nine white plastic keys with the 0 bar below. On the left are CORR, B’K (/) SPAC and X (/) REP’T keys. On the right are SUB- (/) TOTAL, ADD, and NO + (/) TOTAL keys. Above the keyboard is a place indicator. Above and behind this is the printing mechanism. One may enter numbers of up to ten digits, and print results of up to 11 digits.
- A metal plate painted gray and held down with screws covers the spools of the two-color ribbon. The machine has a paper tape 2-1/2” (6.3 cm) wide. A lever on the right releases tension on the platen. A lever on the left sets the spacing. The motor is inside the case, at the back.
- The machine is marked: Underwood (/) Sundstrand ... (/) Underwood Corporation (/) Protected by United States (/) and Foreign Patents (/) Made in U.S.A. It is also marked: 416151 (/) 11140P (/) UNIVERSAL MOTOR (/) VOLTS 115 AMPS. 1.5. The “11” in the first two digits of the model number corresponds to the number of possible digits in the total. The “P” refers to electric machines.
- References:
- American Business Machines Research, III, 1937.
- Documentation 1990.3188.7.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1944
- maker
- Underwood Corporation
- ID Number
- 1978.0279.01
- maker number
- 416151
- accession number
- 1978.0279
- catalog number
- 336517
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Original Odhner Calculating Machine
- Description
- This Swedish lever-set non-printing pinwheel calculating machine has a metal frame painted black, with eight metal pinwheels and a metal base. Numbers are set by rotating the pinwheels forward, using levers that extend from the wheels. Digits inscribed on the frame next to the rotating pinwheels show the number set, as well as a set of windows above the pinwheels that shows these digits.
- The carriage at the front of the machine has eight windows for the revolution counter on the left and thirteen windows for the result register on the right. The revolution counter has tens carry. Cranks at opposite ends of the carriage zero the registers on the carriage. Pushing down a lever at the front releases the carriage. Metal buttons may be pushed down to move the carriage one unit left or right.
- A crank with a wooden knob on the right side of the machine rotates clockwise for addition and multiplication and counterclockwise for subtraction and division. Thin metal rods above the registers carry decimal markers. A black plastic lever is next to the result register. A bell rings when the result changes sign (negative to positive or positive to negative).
- A mark on the top of the machine reads: AKTIEBOLAGET (/) Original-Odhner (/) GOTEBORG SVERIGE. A mark on the back reads: No 39-279039. A second mark there reads: MADE IN SWEDEN.
- According to the Odhner History, the model 39 was in production in 1944. An instruction pamphlet received with the machine (1978.2290.02) is dated 1949. The donor dated the machine to about 1950.
- According to the accession file, the donor of this object, George K. Lucey, flew U.S. Army planes during World War II, and was a navigator for TWA for 22 years.
- References:
- Henry Wassen, Odhner History, Gothenburg, Aktiebolaget Original-Odhner, 1951.
- Accession file.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- ca 1950
- maker
- Aktiebolaget Original Odhner
- ID Number
- 1978.2290.01
- accession number
- 1978.2290
- catalog number
- 336873
- maker number
- 39-279039
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Dalton Model 181-4 Adding Machine
- Description
- This gray-green manually operated ten-key printing adding machine has two rows of white plastic number keys, including complementary numbers for subtraction. There are multiply and non-add keys on the left, and backspace and subtract keys on the right.
- The multiply key acts like a repeat key - multiplication is strictly by repeated addition. The place indicator is above the keyboard, with a metal correction key to the left of it. Above and to the right are release, total, and subtotal keys. The printing mechanism and “4”” carriage are toward the back. The ribbon is black. The non-print key is next to the ribbon.
- There is a place for a 2-1/2” paper tape, but no paper tape. Above the platen is a serrated edge to tear the paper. A zero value appears before a total. The metal crank with wooden handle is on the right. There are metal feet, but no evidence of any rubber padding.
- The machine is marked on the front: Dalton (/) ADDING, (/) LISTING AND (/) CALCULATING MACHINE. The serial number below the crank is: NO170913.
- This example came to the Smithsonian from Immaculata School in Washington, D. C.
- Compare to MA*333874 and MA*333402.
- This closely resembles the Model 181-4 machine described in The Business Machines and Equipment Digest, about. 1928, Sec 3-1, p. 14, 19. This was the “Special $100 Machine.”
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1925
- maker
- Dalton Adding Machine Company
- ID Number
- 1978.2479.04
- maker number
- 170913
- accession number
- 1978.2479
- catalog number
- 336932
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Archimedes Model C-16 Calculating Machine
- Description
- This manually operated non-printing German stepped drum calculating machine has a brass and iron frame painted black. Ten relatively short levers at the front of the machine move forward to set the stepped drums beneath. A lever for zeroing these levers is to the left , and a row of ten windows above the levers shows the number set. To the left of these windows are two levers that can be set for addition and multiplication or subtraction and division (one lever is for the revolution counting register, one is for the result register). The operating crank is to the right of the digit levers.
- Behind the levers is the movable carriage with a row of 16 windows for showing the result and a row of nine levers behind that for revolution counting. A row of knobs allows one to set up numbers in the result register. There are zeroing levers for both carriage levers to the right of the registers. A knob for lifting the carriage is on the right. A piece of plastic covers the underside of the machine. The stepped drums are of brass, cut away and held around a brass core by a metal piece painted black. There are four rubber feet.
- A mark on the front of the machine reads: „Archimedes”. A mark on the left reads: ARCHIMEDES (/) Reinhold Pöthig (/) Glashütte, Sa. A tag on the carriage reads: 4177. A mark on the back edge of the carriage at the left reads: 6521. A mark on the left of the machine reads: PATENT.
- According to Martin, the Model C Archimedes machine was introduced in 1913. On early versions of this model, the entry register was below the levers. The model C was still offered for sale in 1924, when the C-16 cost $375.00 new.
- References:
- E. Martin, The Calculating Machines (Die Rechenmaschinen), trans. P. A. Kidwell and M. R. Williams, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992, pp. 181–185.
- J. H. McCarthy, American Digest of Business Machines, Chicago: American Exchange Service, 1924, p. 68.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- ca 1920
- maker
- Reinhold Pöthig
- ID Number
- 1979.0419.01
- catalog number
- 1979.0419.01
- accession number
- 1979.0419
- maker number
- 6521
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Kalkometer
- Description
- This notched band adder has a metal front and back, painted gray and black. There are eight columns, eight bands, and eight windows below the bands to show the result. The columns are hooked at the top for carrying and at the bottom for borrowing. Along each column, a row of digits along the right provides for addition and, along the left, for subtraction. Across the top is a zeroing bar. The stylus fits across the inside top of a green leather carrying case. The machine is marked: MADE IN U.S.A. It is also marked: Adds [/] Subtracts [/] Aids in Multiplication.
- This small device was given to the Smithsonian by economic consultant Frank M. Graves.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- ca 1960
- ID Number
- 1979.0601.01
- accession number
- 1979.0601
- catalog number
- 1979.0601.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Tim III Calculating Machine
- Description
- This German stepped drum, manually operated non-printing calculating machine has a brass and iron case painted black. The eight digit setting levers link to both number dials and brass stepped drums. The number dials record digits entered. Levers in front of the dials zero the entry. An addition & multiplication / subtraction & division lever is on the left, and an operating crank on the right. The plate at the front is easily removed to show the levers and bell. The bell rings when the result changes sign (as in overdivision).
- In back of the levers is the carriage, with nine revolution register dials and 16 result register dials. Both these registers can be set by hand. The revolution register dials have numbers in black (0 to 9) and in red (1 to 8). The zeroing bars for these registers are on the right of the carriage, and a knob for lifting the carriage is on its far left.
- The machine has a metal tag attached to the front that reads: Ludwig Spitz & Co. G.m.b.H. (/) TIM (/) TIME IS MONEY (/) TRADE MARK. It also reads: TIM Calculating Machine Co (/) Chicago U.S.A. It is marked to the left of the entry levers: PATENT. A mark under the carriage on the right side reads: 03745. A mark under the carriage on the left side reads: 2549.
- This model of the TIM was introduced in about 1909 and sold at least through 1924. This example was transferred to the Smithsonian collections from the Navy Memorial Museum at the Washington Navy Yard.
- References:
- E. Martin, The Calculating Machines (die Rechenmaschinen), trans. P. A. Kidwell and M. R. Williams, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992, pp. 191–194.
- J. H. McCarthy, The American Digest of Business Machines, Chicago: American Exchange Service, 1924, pp. 84–85. By this time, the American agent for the TIM calculating machine was the Times Into Company of Chicago, Illinois.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- ca 1911
- maker
- Ludwig Spitz & Co.
- ID Number
- 1979.0602.01
- catalog number
- 1979.0602.01
- accession number
- 1979.0602
- maker number
- 03745
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Teaching Abacus, or Numeral Frame
- Description
- To teach children basic arithmetic, 19th-century teachers used numeral frames like this one. They resemble a Russian abacus, in that beads move crosswise. However, each bead represents a unit digit (unlike the abacus, where beads in different rows or columns have different place values).
- Soldiers returning from Russia after the Napoleonic Wars introduced this kind of abacus into France. In England, teacher and educational reformer Samuel Wilderspin promoted its use. Educators from both France and England brought it to the U. S., where it began to sell commercially in the late 1820s.
- Some numeral frames were purchased and others homemade. The device was used to teach counting, simple addition, multiplication, and fractions. Most early numeral frames had 12 or 10 beads in a row. This one has 8 parallel copper wires, each with 18 beads. The instrument was used in Mexico. It came to the Smithsonian in 1979. There are no maker’s marks.
- Reference: P. A. Kidwell, Amy Ackerberg-Hastings, and D. L. Roberts, Tools of American Mathematics Teaching, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008, pp. 87-104.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- ID Number
- 1979.0693.01
- catalog number
- 1979.0693.01
- accession number
- 1979.0693
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Standard Model B Adding Machine
- Description
- This ten-key printing adding machine has a cast-iron frame painted black, with ten black plastic numeral keys across the front (two of these keys are missing) and nine red and white plastic unmarked order keys behind these. There is a large metal key on the left side, and a key stem (without cover) below. The paper tape holder is behind the keys (there is no paper tape), the printing mechanism behind it, and the adding mechanism behind this. Missing front and two sides, crank, three key covers, ribbon. The machine has serial number 6044. It was transferred to the Smithsonian from the U.S. Department of Commerce.
- The machine is marked on a tag screwed to the top: No. 6044 (/) STANDARD ADDING MACHINE Co (/)] ST LOUIS, Mo U.S.A. (/) PATENTED MAR. 3’ 1891 (/) MAR. 27’ 1894 (/) OTHER PATENTS PENDING. It is marked on the back: ACCURACY (/) SUPREMACY; PATENTED (/) MARCH 3rd 1891 (/) MARCH 27th 1894 (/) OCTOBER 8th 1901 (/) OTHER PATENTS PENDING
- References:
- E. Martin, The Calculating Machines (Die Rechenmaschinen), trans. P. A. Kidwell and M. R. Williams, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1992, pp. 143,144; Brunsviga catalog Zaz 1903-1 (No. 5828).
- A. C. Ludlam, “Adding and Writing Machine,” U.S. Patent 384372, June 12, 1888 - reissue March 3, 1891.) and 517383 William W. Hopkins, “Adding, Subtracting, and Recording Machine,” U.S. Patent 517383, March 27, 1894 - assigned to Standard Adding Machine Co. of St. Louis at time of issue.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1907
- maker
- Standard Adding Machine Company
- ID Number
- 1979.0806.01
- maker number
- 6044
- accession number
- 1979.0806
- catalog number
- 1979.0806.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Olivetti Divisumma 24 Calculating Machine
- Description
- Established as a typewriter manufacturer in 1908, the Italian firm founded by engineer Camillo Olivetti (1868–1943) began manufacturing a calculating machine in 1940. After World War II, it introduced a ten-key printing machine capable of division, the Divisumma 14. This is a later version of that machine, the Divisumma 24, which was introduced in 1956. Like many Olivetti products, these adding machines reflect the style of artist and industrial designer Marcello Nizzoli and have received attention for that reason. This example was manufactured after Olivetti acquired the Underwood Typewriter Company in 1959.
- The machine has a gray metal case with a black lid. The yellow keyboard has a block of nine white number keys. Below these are three black keys with white dots for setting single, double, and triple zeros. To the right are two sets of four keys. Four of these are green, and relate to operations in the green register. The other four are black, and relate to operations in the black register (keys of one color are not grouped).
- To the left of the numeral keys are the backspace key and the keyboard clearing key. Below them is the thumb add bar. Left of these are two levers with green knobs. One, marked A, predetermines automatic or non-automatic printing of the product. The other, marked R, is a repeat key. Further keys are to the left of these. The column indicator is above the keyboard.
- The printing mechanism toward the back includes four digit wheels used to set dates, 13 digit wheels for numbers, and two type wheels right of the digit-wheels to print symbols. Totals are printed in red. The serrated plastic edge helps to tear the paper tape.
- A mark on the top of the machine reads: underwood * olivetti. A mark on the back reads: Divisumma 24 Olivetti (/) MADE IN ITALY FABRIQUE EN ITALIE. A plate attached to the bottom has the serial number: 2D014738.
- The machine also has a gray plastic cover, three paper tapes and two cords stored. The tapes are 8.8 cm. (3-1/2”) wide.
- Compare 1979.0932.01.
- The Kansas physician Richard L. Sutton Jr. reported when he donated the object to the Smithsonian Institution in 1979 that he found it “a meritorious machine, to which I have been strongly attached emotionally.”
- References:
- S. Kicherer, Olivetti: A Study of the Corporate Management of Design, New York: Rizzoli Inc, 1990.
- N. Shapira, Design Process Olivetti 1908–1978, [Ivrea, Italy]: Olivetti, 1979, pp. 56–57.
- Olivetti, Instructions for the Operation of Tetractys Printing Calculator, 1958. (1979.0854.02).
- Accession file.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1959
- maker
- Olivetti
- ID Number
- 1979.0854.01
- maker number
- 2D014738
- accession number
- 1979.0854
- catalog number
- 1979.0854.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center