Science & Mathematics - Overview
The Museum's collections hold thousands of objects related to chemistry, biology, physics, astronomy, and other sciences. Instruments range from early American telescopes to lasers. Rare glassware and other artifacts from the laboratory of Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, are among the scientific treasures here. A Gilbert chemistry set of about 1937 and other objects testify to the pleasures of amateur science. Artifacts also help illuminate the social and political history of biology and the roles of women and minorities in science.
The mathematics collection holds artifacts from slide rules and flash cards to code-breaking equipment. More than 1,000 models demonstrate some of the problems and principles of mathematics, and 80 abstract paintings by illustrator and cartoonist Crockett Johnson show his visual interpretations of mathematical theorems.
"Science & Mathematics - Overview" showing 1400 items.
Page 127 of 140
Gurley Cox's Stadia Computer Circular Slide Rule
- Description
- Some slide rules reveal transformations in materials. A later version of this paper circular slide rule was made from celluloid (1987.0221.02). Both were designed to reduce data obtained with a surveyor's transit.
- On the base, just outside the disc, is a logarithmic scale for readings of a stadia rod used with a transit telescope, in feet. The edge of the disc has two scales involving functions of angles. One scale allows for multiplying the stadia reading by 1/2 sin 2 A, where A is the vertical angle of the transit telescope. This multiplication gives the difference in elevation of the transit and the stadia rod, in feet. The second scale represents multiplying the stadia reading by the square of the cosine of A, to find the horizontal distance of the rod in feet. The instrument bears a copyright date of 1899. Compare this instrument to Webb’s stadia rule (MA*333636) as well as to 1977.1141.41 and 2001.0282.01.
- The slide rule has a cloth-covered cardboard cover. Pasted on the inside of the cover is an image of the Light Mountain Transit sold by W. & L. E. Gurley of Troy, N.Y., from 1897 to 1908. The image of the transit in the 1910 Gurley catalog is different, but it is not the same as the image on rule 1987.0221.02. Cox’s stadia computer is not mentioned in any of these catalogs; the device was probably given away as a promotional item.
- In 1904, W. M. Beaman, a topographer in the U.S. Geological Survey, devised the “Beaman stadia arc,” a transit attachment that obviated the need for separate computing rules. Beaman obtained a patent for his instrument in 1906, and it was offered in Gurley catalogs from at least 1908.
- References: W. & L. E. Gurley, A Manual of the Principal Instruments Used in American Engineering and Surveying, 42nd ed. (Troy, N.Y., 1908), 62–63; Florian Cajori, "A Stadia Slide-Rule," Engineering News 43 (April 5, 1900): 232; Richard Smith Hughes, "Stadia or Tacheometric Slide Rules, Part II," Journal of the Oughtred Society 16, no. 2 (2007): 32–41.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- after 1899
- maker
- W. & L. E. Gurley
- ID Number
- 1987.0221.01
- accession number
- 1987.0221
- catalog number
- 1987.0221.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Gurley Cox's Stadia Computer Circular Slide Rule
- Description
- This instrument consists of a plastic disc riveted to a plastic base. It is very similar to a paper instrument of the same name (see 1987.0221.01).
- The base, just outside the disc, has a logarithmic scale that represents readings in feet of a stadia rod used with a transit telescope. The base, just outside the disc, has a logarithmic scale that represents readings in feet of a stadia rod used with a transit telescope. The edge of the disc has two scales of functions of angles. Applying the first scale multiplies the stadia reading by 1/2 sin 2A, where A is the vertical angle of the transit telescope. This multiplication gives the difference in elevation of the transit and the stadia rod, in feet. The second scale multiplies the stadia reading by the square of cos A, to find the horizontal distance of the rod in feet.
- The back of the instrument bears an advertisement for W. & L. E. Gurley, a maker of instruments in Troy, N.Y. A transit is depicted; it appears to be Gurley's Explorers [sic] precise transit. This was the smallest and lightest Gurley transit, shown in the Gurley catalogs for 1910 and 1912 (with a different image than is on this rule) and 1921 (with same image as on rule), but not the 1928 catalog. The 1921 catalog advertises the celluloid form of the Cox stadia computer and indicates that it sold for 75 cents.
- A maker's mark at the bottom of the back of the computer is not legible, but the firm of Whitehead and Hoag of Newark, N.J., is known to have manufactured the instrument for Gurley in the second quarter of the 20th century.
- References: W. & L. E. Gurley, Catalogue of Gurley Engineering Instruments (Troy, N.Y., 1921), 50; Florian Cajori, "A Stadia Slide-Rule," Engineering News 43 (April 5, 1900): 232; Laine Farley, "Whitehead & Hoag Celluloid Bookmarks," http://www.bibliobuffet.com/on-marking-books-columns-195/archive-index-on-marking-books/1039-whitehead-a-hoag-celluloid-bookmarks-053109.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- ca 1921
- maker
- W. & L. E. Gurley
- ID Number
- 1987.0221.02
- accession number
- 1987.0221
- catalog number
- 1987.0221.02
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Protective Jumpsuit
- Description (Brief)
- This jumpsuit was worn by a scientist from Advanced Genetic Systems during the first release of genetically modified microorganisms into the environment approved by the federal government.
- The organisms, a genetically modified version of naturally occurring bacteria from the genus Pseudomonas, were sprayed on test fields of strawberry plants in Monterey County, Calif., to increase their resistance to frost.
- In nature, Pseudomonas can be found on the surface of many plants. The bacteria contribute to problems with frost on crops because they produce a protein that promotes the formation of ice. In hopes of reducing frost damage to crops, scientist Steve Lindow at the University of California altered the bacteria to stop producing this protein. The University patented these “ice-minus” bacteria and licensed the technology to Advanced Genetic Systems, a company based in Oakland, Calif. AGS hoped to bring the bacteria to market as an ice-proofing spray for crops called “Frostban.”
- After careful review, the U.S. government approved field tests of Frostban. Despite the review, public fear of releasing these bacteria into the environment remained. Some scientists raised concerns that the ice-minus bacteria could replace the natural bacterial population. Because of their ice-forming abilities, the natural bacteria play a role in the creation of precipitation. This fact led some to worry that damage to the natural population could have repercussions for rainfall and weather patterns.
- Activists against Frostban broke into test fields and uprooted plants to be sprayed several times throughout the field trials. After four years of tests, Frostban was found to be effective in reducing frost damage to crops. Due to continued public discomfort with genetically modified organisms, however, AGS never marketed the product. The company feared that the expense of fighting legal battles to get it to market would outweigh possible profit.
- Sources:
- “Public Fears Factored Into Gene-Altered Bacteria Tests.” Griffin, Katherine. The Los Angeles Times. April 18, 1988. p. AOC11.
- “Bacteria on the Loose.” Fox, Michael W. The Washington Post. November 26, 1985. p. A16.
- “Chapter 5: Ecological Considerations.” Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States. Field-Testing Engineered Organisms: Genetic and Ecological Issues. 2002. pp.94–95.
- “Chapter 4: The Release of a Genetically Engineered Microorganism.” Schacter, Bernice Zeldin. Issues and Dilemmas of Biotechnology: A Reference Guide. 1999.
- ID Number
- 1987.0770.01
- accession number
- 1987.0770
- catalog number
- 1987.0770.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Keuffel & Esser 1740 Thacher Cylindrical Slide Rule
- Description
- This rule has a cylindrical hollow brass drum, which is covered with paper printed with 40 A scales. The first A scale runs from 100 to 112; the fortieth runs from 946 to 100 to 105. The paper is also printed in italics on the right side: Patented by Edwin Thatcher [sic], C.E. Nov. 1st 1881. Divided by W. F. Stanley, London, 1882. A wooden handle is attached to each end of the drum, and the drum slides in both directions.
- The drum fits inside an open rotating frame to which 20 brass slats are fastened. The slats are lined with cloth and covered with paper. The paper on each slat is printed with two B and two C scales. The first B scale runs from 100 to 112; the fortieth runs from 946 to 100 to 105. The first C scale runs from 100 to 334; the fortieth runs from 308 to 325. The frame is attached to a mahogany base, and the object is housed in a mahogany case. A paper label appears to have been removed from the top of the case.
- A paper of directions and rules for operating THACHER'S CALCULATING INSTRUMENT is glued to the top front of the base. A metal tag attached to the top back of the base is engraved: Keuffel & Esser (/) New York. The front right corner of the frame is stamped with numbers: 57 and 35. Presumably one of these is the serial number, but which one is not clear. In either case, the low number and the shape of the frame suggest that this example is the earliest Thacher cylindrical slide rule in the collections. Model 1740 sold for $30.00 in 1887.
- Robert B. Steffes of the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics donated this instrument to the Smithsonian in 1970.
- See also MA*312866 and 1987.0107.08.
- References: Wayne E. Feely, "Thacher Cylindrical Slide Rules," The Chronicle of the Early American Industries Association 50 (1997): 125–127; Catalogue of Keuffel & Esser (New York, 1887), 128. This was the first K&E catalog to list the model 1740.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1882-1887
- maker
- Keuffel & Esser Co.
- Stanley, William Ford
- ID Number
- 1987.0808.01
- catalog number
- 1987.0808.01
- accession number
- 1987.0808
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Add-A-Count Scale
- Description
- During the 1950s, the number of children in the United States grew rapidly. Several manufacturers introduced toys intended to communicate elementary ideas. The Add-A-Count scale, made by Child Guidance Toys of New York City, well illustrates this trend. The red, white, and blue plastic toy is a balance with weights in the form of numbers. The weight of the weight is proportional to the size of the number. Hence a "3" on one arm will balance a "2" and a "1" on the other. There are two weights for each digit from 1 to 5 and one weight for each digit from 6 to 9, making a total of 14 weights. The weights and scale fit in a paper box, which has on it a drawing of a girl playing with the toy. In the 1960s, the toy was sold by instrument dealers like Edmund Scientific Company of Barrington, New Jersey. It sold for $1.00—by 1968 the price was $1.50.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1950s
- maker
- Child Guidance Toys
- ID Number
- 1988.0155.01
- accession number
- 1988.0155
- catalog number
- 1988.0155.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Energy Ontario DriveSave Fuel Economy Calculator Slide Rule
- Description
- In 1982 the government of the Canadian province of Ontario prepared this silver and orange paper linear slide rule for motorists. The front cover is marked: Energy (/) Ontario. It is also marked: fuel (/) economy (/) calculator. It is also marked: DriveSave (/) Improving the Fuel Economy (/) of Automobiles in Ontario. Inside are instructions for tracking distances driven and fuel purchases on a provided "fuel economy log" and for calculating miles per gallon or liters per 100 kilometers with the provided slide rule.
- The back cover contains driving and maintenance tips for improving fuel economy. It is marked: Ontario. It is also marked: Ministry of (/) Transportation and (/) Communications (/) Hon. James W. Snow (/) Minister. It is also marked: Ministry (/) of (/) Energy (/) Hon. Robert Welch (/) Minister. DriveSave was located in the Ministry of Transportation offices in Downsview, Ontario. Snow served from 1975 to 1984, and Welch served from 1979 to 1983.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1982
- maker
- Province of Ontario
- ID Number
- 1988.3078.04
- nonaccession number
- 1988.3078
- catalog number
- 1988.3078.04
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Grindsted Products Metric Converter Slide Rule
- Description
- This rule consists of a clear plastic envelope, glued together along the back bottom edge, and a white plastic slide. The front of the rule has six windows for reading off conversions between yards or feet and meters; centimeters and inches; square yards and square meters; square centimeters and square inches; cubic meters and cubic yards; and liters and imperial gallons or U.S. gallons. The front also has tables of equivalents and a scale for converting between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures. The top right corner is marked: GRINDSTED (/) PRODUCTS, INC. (/) Research for quality (/) 2701 ROCKCREEK PKY. (/) NORTH KANSAS CITY, (/) MISSOURI 64116. It is also marked: TEL: 816-842-6500 (/)TELEX: 4-2565 (/)GRINDSINC NKSC. A table for decimal equivalents between fractions, millimeters, and inches runs down the middle of the slide.
- The back has six windows for reading off conversions between pounds and kilograms; ounces and grams; PSI and atmospheres or kilograms per square centimeters; inches or centimeters of mercury and PSI; BTU and kilocalories or watt hours; and meter-kilograms and foot-pounds or joules. The back also has more tables of equivalents.
- Grindsted is a Danish brand for bulk food products, such as animal feed and emulsifiers for human foods. In 1989 it merged into the Danish conglomerate Danisco, which in turn was purchased by DuPont in 2011. The logo on this rule was in use from 1975 to 1991. Grindsted's factory in the Kansas City suburbs opened in 1975 and filed an annual report in 2012. Compare this rule to metric converters 1990.0689.01 and 1990.3231.01. For the style of manufacture, compare to 1988.0795.02.
- References: "Articles of Incorporation of Grinsted Products, Inc.," Missouri Secretary of State Business Name History, https://www.sos.mo.gov/BusinessEntity/soskb/Corp.asp?165854; "History - DuPont Danisco," http://www.danisco.com/about-dupont/duponttm-daniscor/history/; U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Trademark Electronic Search System.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1975-1991
- maker
- Grindsted Products, Inc.
- ID Number
- 1988.3078.05
- catalog number
- 1988.3078.05
- nonaccession number
- 1988.3078
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Wright's Arithmeter Cylindrical Slide Rule
- Description
- In the mid-19th century, the expansion and regulation of American insurance companies created a need for numerous computations and a demand for instruments to assist in this process. Elizur Wright (1804–1885), one of the first insurance commissioners of Massachusetts, invented this large cylindrical slide rule, patented it in 1869, and sold it to insurance companies for $500.00. It is the equivalent of a linear slide rule more than 60 feet long.
- The instrument consists of two adjacent cylindrical brass drums, each covered with paper and mounted horizontally in a round brass frame, which is screwed to a round wooden base. Two indentations in the side of the base assist with lifting the instrument. A crossbar attached to the frame extends across the length of the drums. Two indicators slide across a groove in the bar. A brass handle with an ivory knob on the right side of the frame rotates the drums. An ivory button on the left side of the frame operates a brake. When the button is locked in a vertical position, the two drums turn together. When the button is horizontal, only the right drum turns.
- The two cylinders are marked identically. Each drum has a spiral of 20 turns, divided logarithmically (perhaps by pencil), with printed numbers to the right of each division. The first digit of a number is read from the crossbar, and the remaining three are printed on the drum. The markings include every digit from 0 to 3,000; every even digit from 3,000 to 6,000; and every other even digit from 6,000 to 10,000. The arithmeter arrived in a badly scratched wooden case that has two metal handles and a keyhole (but no key).
- A metal plaque screwed to the base is marked: No 6 (/) ELIZUR WRIGHT'S (/) ARITHMETER (/) PATENTED AUG. 17TH 1869. (/) N.E.M.L.INS. CO. The New England Mutual Life Insurance Company (now New England Financial), a company with a long connection to Wright and his family, donated this example, one of ten known surviving arithmeters. Wright's son, Walter C. Wright, was the firm's chief actuary from 1866 to 1900. Wright was also a well-known abolitionist. Although this example cannot be definitively credited to him, Joseph W. Fowle, a Boston machinist who invented a rotating rock drill, is known to have built some arithmeters for Wright.
- References: Elizur Wright, "Calculator" (U.S. Patent 93,849 issued August 17, 1869); Peggy A. Kidwell, "Elizur Wright's Arithmeter. An Early American Spiral Slide Rule," Rittenhouse 4 (1989): 1–4; Lawrence B. Goodheart, Abolitionist, Actuary, Atheist: Elizur Wright and the Reform Impulse (Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1990), 149, 168; Naom Maggor, "Politics of Property: Urban Democracy in the Age of Capital, Boston 1865-1900" (Ph.D. diss., Harvard University, 2010).
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1869
- maker
- Wright, Elizur
- ID Number
- 1989.0366.01
- catalog number
- 1989.0366.01
- accession number
- 1989.0366
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Gradeulator Circular Slide Rule Invented by Frank J. Thomas
- Description
- Frank J. Thomas (1924–1976), a construction engineer from Topeka, Kan., invented the "Gradeulator" in the early 1970s. This circular slide rule was used to convert survey rod readings to sea level elevations, to determine the quantities of cut and fill required for earthwork, and to establish elevations for site grading and pavements.
- The instrument has a square white plastic base with rounded corners. The base is covered with white cardboard that is marked with a circle divided into 100 equal parts, with each part divided into tenths. Four paper discs, each backed with metal, rest on the base. Each disc is divided along the edge into 100 equal parts, 50 for "cut" and 50 for "fill," and has three rings of numbers for 100-, 50-, and 25-foot grids. The second-largest disc is turned upsidedown and has ten square notches along its edge. The smallest disc has paper marked with scales on both sides of the metal, with the "cut" sections outlined in red ink. The instrument is held together with a metal screw and wing nut.
- A clear plastic pointer also pivots at the screw. A piece of clear plastic screwed to the right corner of the base holds the rim of the three largest discs. The inside of the smallest disc is marked: GRADEULATOR (/) INSTRUCTIONS COPYRIGHT © 1973 by FRANK J. THOMAS. The base is marked: GRADEULATOR; PATENT PENDING Frank J. Thomas serial no. 5-73; LEGEND (/) BASE = Rod Reading (/) DISC #1 = SEA LEVEL, 0–100 ft. (/) DISC #2 (Notched) = SEA LEVEL, hundreds (/) DISC #3 = SEA LEVEL, thousands (/) DISC #4 = DEPTH cut or fill, and QUANTITY per grid.
- According to donor Rita Thomas Dukes, Thomas handmade and sold these instruments from his garage. The name "Gradeulator" was trademarked from November 11, 1975, to April 6, 1982 (serial no. 73013213, registration no. 1024537). In 1973, Thomas applied for a patent, which was issued in 1976.
- Reference: Frank J. Thomas, "Rotary Slide Rule for Topographic Calculations" (U.S. Patent 3,937,930 issued February 10, 1976).
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1973-1982
- maker
- Thomas, Frank J.
- ID Number
- 1990.0509.01
- accession number
- 1990.0509
- catalog number
- 1990.0509.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer
- Description
- This circular slide rule describes the effects of a nuclear explosion on people. After World War II, scientists at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory prepared a report on forms of damage associated with the explosion of atomic bombs. These included physical damage, fire and heat, and nuclear radiation.
- With the development of the more powerful hydrogen bomb, physical chemist Samuel Glasstone and his associates prepared an updated report, and published it under the title The Effects of Nuclear Weapons. This information was distributed for use in planning against possible nuclear attack.
- From 1962 onward, copies of The Effects of Nuclear Weapons had a pocket containing a Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer. Setting the indices on the front of the instrument for the yield of a nuclear bomb in megatons and the distance of its explosion in miles, scales on the front of the instrument describe changes in atmospheric pressure and winds associated with the blast, as well as cratering and the velocity of window glass.
- Charts on the back indicate the initial nuclear radiation and the thermal radiation. Tables indicate the probable medical effects of various doses of radiation, from no illness to severe burns to death. The Nuclear Bomb Effects Computer was developed at the Lovelace Foundation in Albuqueque, New Mexico, for the United States Atomic Energy Commission.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1962
- maker
- Lovelace Foundation
- ID Number
- 1990.0688.01
- accession number
- 1990.0688
- catalog number
- 1990.0688.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center