Science & Mathematics

The Museum's collections hold thousands of objects related to chemistry, biology, physics, astronomy, and other sciences. Instruments range from early American telescopes to lasers. Rare glassware and other artifacts from the laboratory of Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, are among the scientific treasures here. A Gilbert chemistry set of about 1937 and other objects testify to the pleasures of amateur science. Artifacts also help illuminate the social and political history of biology and the roles of women and minorities in science.

The mathematics collection holds artifacts from slide rules and flash cards to code-breaking equipment. More than 1,000 models demonstrate some of the problems and principles of mathematics, and 80 abstract paintings by illustrator and cartoonist Crockett Johnson show his visual interpretations of mathematical theorems.

This aluminum bar, with an X-shaped cross-section, is a replica of the platinum international meter prototype housed in Paris and used as a standard for the metric system from 1889 to 1960. On one side, the lower left corner is marked: A.27.
Description
This aluminum bar, with an X-shaped cross-section, is a replica of the platinum international meter prototype housed in Paris and used as a standard for the metric system from 1889 to 1960. On one side, the lower left corner is marked: A.27. The upper right corner is marked: B.27. Like an actual meter standard, the bar is 102 centimeters long and there are marks 1 centimeter from each end on this side to show the precise length of a meter. Compare to 2000.0126.25.
A rectangular walnut case is lined with black felt. A brass plate on the top of the case is marked: REPLICA METER BAR (/) Presented to (/) BENJAMIN L. PAGE (/) Metrologist (/) National Bureau of Standards (/) On the occasion of his retirement (/) December 29, 1961.
Benjamin Lorenzo Page (1894–1977) began working with length standards at the National Bureau of Standards (now the National Institute of Standards and Technology) around 1920. He was presented with this replica when he retired. His widow, Helen (Bell) Page, then gave it to one of his colleagues, Rolland Ackermann (1905–1985).
References: Catalog of Artifacts on Display in the NBS Museum, edited by H. L. Mason, NBSIR 76-1125 (Washington, D.C., 1977), 17; Robert P. Crease, World in the Balance: The Historic Quest for an Absolute System of Measurement (New York: W. W. Norton, 2011), 223; Herbert Arthur Klein, The Science of Measurement: A Historical Survey (reprint, New York: Dover, 1988), 185; "Benjamin Lorenzo 'Ben' Page," http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=35098794; Calibrations of the Line Standards of Length of the National Bureau of Standards, by Lewis V. Judson and Benjamin L. Page, RP743, Bureau of Standards Journal of Research 11 (July-December 1933).
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1961
Maker
National Bureau of Standards
ID Number
1985.0819.01
accession number
1985.0819
catalog number
1985.0819.01
This instrument is in the shape of a hollow octagonal prism. A pair of dividers (measuring 10.6 x 1.3 x 1.2 cm) screws into one end. One leg of the dividers may be removed and placed in a hole at the other end of the scale.
Description
This instrument is in the shape of a hollow octagonal prism. A pair of dividers (measuring 10.6 x 1.3 x 1.2 cm) screws into one end. One leg of the dividers may be removed and placed in a hole at the other end of the scale. A slide then moves the leg back and forth for use as a scriber.
A scale appears on each face of the instrument: inches (divided to 1/10" and numbered from 1 to 6); chords; sines; tangents; equal parts of 30, 25, and 20 to the inch; and "calibre." Many of these scales appeared on sectors; like those instruments, this object would have been used for surveying, architectural drawing, and artillery positioning.
The face with the calibre scale is marked: G. Adams LONDON. In 1734, George Adams Sr. (1709–1772) established a workshop on Fleet Street. From 1756 the firm fulfilled hundreds of commissions as instrument maker to His Majesty's Office of Ordnance. George Adams Jr. (1750–1795) took over the business after his father's death, with help from his mother, Ann, for the first couple of years. Although he retained the ordnance commissions, these became less profitable over time and the firm was in debt when he died. George Jr.'s wife, Hannah, sold the remaining stock and tools in 1796. Father and son both used the signature "G. Adams," so this instrument cannot be dated precisely.
References: Gloria Clifton, Directory of British Scientific Instrument Makers 1550–1851 (London: National Maritime Museum, 1995), 2–3; John R. Millburn, Adams of Fleet Street: Instrument Makers to King George III (Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2000); Adler Planetarium, Webster Signature Database, http://historydb.adlerplanetarium.org/signatures/.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1750–1795
maker
Adams, George
ID Number
1987.0379.01
accession number
1987.0379
catalog number
1987.0379.01
This blue and black lenticular card has a ruler along the top edge. When viewed at one angle, a centimeter ruler is divided to millimeters and numbered by ones from 1 to 15. Below the ruler is a table for rivet code numbers, with row headings POP TAP, POP TLP, and IMEX.
Description
This blue and black lenticular card has a ruler along the top edge. When viewed at one angle, a centimeter ruler is divided to millimeters and numbered by ones from 1 to 15. Below the ruler is a table for rivet code numbers, with row headings POP TAP, POP TLP, and IMEX. From another angle, a six-inch ruler is divided to 1/32" and numbered by ones from 1 to 6. Below the ruler is a table for riveting thickness, with row headings POP ALUM, POP MONEL, and IMEX.
British engineer Hamilton Neil Wylie invented blind or pop rivets between 1916 and 1927. They may be installed in situations where the body (such as an aircraft) or building being assembled may be accessed from only one side. Introduced in 1955, Imex rivets are sealed on one side. While both terms are now in common use, Pop and Imex were originally brand names used by the George Tucker Eyelet Company of Birmingham, England. The rivet metals in the table include aluminum and Monel, a nickel alloy trademarked by Special Metals Corporation of New Hartford, N.Y.
The donor found this object in a used book he bought at Humboldt State University in Arcata, Calif., in 1976. The back has several pen and pencil marks, including: 4.11.74; James Ramkinson; S; India Education Trust (/) Dod[illegible]nt Avenue; M. Rodrigues.
Reference: "The History of Stanley Engineered Fastening in Europe," http://www.emhart.eu/eu-en/about-emhart/history.php.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1974
maker
IMEX
ID Number
1987.0899.01
accession number
1987.0899
catalog number
1987.0899.01
This convex orange-coated tin combination rule and paper cutter has a 9" scale divided to sixteenths of an inch along one long edge. The other long edge is shaped into a tube, which may serve as a handle while cutting or tearing paper.
Description
This convex orange-coated tin combination rule and paper cutter has a 9" scale divided to sixteenths of an inch along one long edge. The other long edge is shaped into a tube, which may serve as a handle while cutting or tearing paper. A small hole at the right end may be for hanging the rule. The rule is marked: Compliments (/) of (/) THE HARTFORD FIRE INS. Co. (/) HARTFORD, CONN. The company's logo of a stag appears between the words "HARTFORD" and "FIRE." The tube notes that the company had paid $33,000,00 for claims in New York City in 1835, Nantucket, Mass., in 1846, St. Louis, Mo., in 1849, Portland, Me., in 1866, Chicago in 1871, Boston in 1872, and St. John, New Brunswick, "and other places" in 1877. These were all historic destructive fires. The back of the rule is marked: AGENCIES IN ALL CITIES AND TOWNS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY (/) Commenced Buisness 1794 • Charter Perpetual (/) The Chicago Stamping Co. Combination Rule and Paper Cutter. Patent Sept. 8th 1885. Hartford Fire Ins. Co. Sole Owner and Manufacturer. All Infringements prosecuted.
Richard S. Thain (1845–1912) received the patent mentioned on the instrument. He fought for the Union in the Civil War, was advertising manager of a Chicago publication, Western Rural, and organized an advertising firm with George W. Sharp in 1868. He spent some time in New York City after the Chicago fire of 1871. From 1882 to 1889, he worked for a Chicago advertising agency, Lord & Thomas. Another ruler made from Thain's design is 293320.2815.
The Chicago Stamping Company was in business from at least as early as 1868 to at least as late as 1911. The firm made enameled cylindrical tin containers, such as milk and trash cans; published sheet music and stationery items; and manufactured the United States Wheel brand of bicycles. Although text on the rule says The Hartford started selling fire insurance in 1794, the history on the company's website indicates it was not incorporated until May 10, 1810. The firm adopted its stag logo in 1875. As of 2013, it was one of the biggest insurance companies worldwide.
References: Richard S. Thain, "Combination Ruler and Paper Cutter" (U.S. Patent 325,992 issued September 8, 1885); "Men of the Ninety-sixth Regiment with Millburn Connections," excerpted from Charles A. Partridge, ed., History of the Ninety-Sixth Regiment Illinois Volunteer Infantry (Chicago, 1887), Historic Millburn Community Association, http://www.hmca-il.org/k6men.htm; "The Hartford's Historical Timeline," http://www.thehartford.com/about/.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1890
distributor
Hartford Fire Insurance Company
maker
Chicago Stamping Company
ID Number
MA.293320.2814
accession number
293320
catalog number
293320.2814
This octagonal wooden rule has a handle and a measuring part that is broken off at the end. Both parts are crudely but prolifically carved with Xs, triangles, curves, and diamonds. One face is carved with a number: 1756. Another face is notched with measuring marks.
Description
This octagonal wooden rule has a handle and a measuring part that is broken off at the end. Both parts are crudely but prolifically carved with Xs, triangles, curves, and diamonds. One face is carved with a number: 1756. Another face is notched with measuring marks. These are placed 4, 6.3, 10.8, 19.4, 26, and 53.5 cm from the base of the handle. Compare to MA.318246, MA.318247, and MA.318248.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1756
ID Number
MA.325404
accession number
244021
catalog number
325404
Both edges of one side of this German silver triangular rule have scales divided to 1/40" and numbered by twos from 3 [sic] to 24 and by ones from 1 to 6. This side is marked: In. 40. U.S. STD.
Description
Both edges of one side of this German silver triangular rule have scales divided to 1/40" and numbered by twos from 3 [sic] to 24 and by ones from 1 to 6. This side is marked: In. 40. U.S. STD. It is also marked: Josiah Lyman, Lenox, Mass.
Both edges of the second side have scales divided to 1/24" and numbered by ones from 1 to 12 and from 1 to 6. This side is marked: In. 24. U.S. STD. Both edges of the third side have scales divided to 1/20" and numbered by ones from 1 to 10 and from 1 to 5. This side is marked: Ft. 200. U.S. STD.
One end has a micrometer screw. According to the patent, there should be three interchangeable micrometer circles, but only one is present. The other end is supposed to have a thumb-nut, but the tube that would hold it is broken. Three large holes are in the center of each side. Three pinholes are in each end.
Among other inventions, Josiah Lyman (1811–1889) patented a protracting trigonometer (U.S. Patent 20,356 issued May 25, 1858). See MA.328738. This triangular rule was supposed to have a brass spring attachment that would hook into the pin holes at each end of the rule and then around the trigonometer, making the rule a sliding scale for the trigonometer. Lyman argued that placing a weight on the arm of wire stretching across the trigonometer would make the sliding scale mathematically reliable. He claimed that the micrometer scale, together with the protracting trigonometer, could measure off the twelve-thousandth part of a line 12 inches long.
References: Josiah Lyman, "Improvement in Drafting Scales" (U.S. Patent 38,904 issued June 16, 1863); Peggy A. Kidwell, "Josiah Lyman's Protracting Trigonometer," Rittenhouse 3 (1988): 11–14.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1863
maker
Lyman, Josiah
ID Number
MA.308918
accession number
89797
catalog number
308918
This heavy brass ruler is divided to millimeters along one edge. The other edge is divided into ten units of 1-3/16" (3 cm). Each unit is thus roughly equivalent to the sun, a traditional Japanese unit of length that is 1/10 of a shaku.
Description
This heavy brass ruler is divided to millimeters along one edge. The other edge is divided into ten units of 1-3/16" (3 cm). Each unit is thus roughly equivalent to the sun, a traditional Japanese unit of length that is 1/10 of a shaku. Two of the units are subdivided into 50 parts; the other eight are subdivided into 20 parts. Neither of the scales are sequentially numbered. Instead, the units of each scale are marked with a small "0," with an additional three zeroes above the "0" at the center of the scale of equal parts.
The Japanese Empire Department of Education displayed this rule at the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. It then was held by the Museum of the U.S. Bureau of Education before transfer to the Smithsonian in 1910. For more information, see MA.261298 and MA.261313.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
ID Number
MA.261293
accession number
51116
catalog number
261293
A rectangular paulownia wood case has a red and white sticker on the right end marked: No. 45 (/) M. Inside the case are four bamboo rulers, three that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long and one that is 2-1/4" (15.5 cm).
Description
A rectangular paulownia wood case has a red and white sticker on the right end marked: No. 45 (/) M. Inside the case are four bamboo rulers, three that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long and one that is 2-1/4" (15.5 cm). A fifth rule is made of a darker wood, perhaps cherry.
The first rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 3000. The scales along both edges are identical, 30 cm long, divided to twentieths of a unit, and numbered by hundreds from 0 to 2,400. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also marked: 1 (/) 3000.
The second rule is made from a dark wood and is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. The scales are identical and labeled: 1/16. They are divided to half-units and numbered by fives from 5 to 190. Each increment of five units is 5/16" (8 mm) long.
The third rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 1800. The scales along both edges are identical, 30 cm long, divided to single units, and numbered by tens from 0 to 540. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also marked: 1 (/) 1800. It is also marked: 5.
The fourth rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 1600. The scales along both edges are identical, 30 cm long, divided to single units, and numbered by tens from 0 to 480. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also marked: 1 (/) 1600. It is also marked: 6.
The scales on the fifth and shortest rule are 2" (5 cm) long, divided to single units, and numbered by tens from 0 to 40. The rule is marked on the back: 1/800. It is also stamped in red: 3.
These rules were likely used in engineering and architectural drawing. Compare to MA.261283, MA.261284, MA.261286, and MA.261287. The rules were exhibited by the Japanese Empire Department of Education at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. They then were displayed by the Museum of the U.S. Bureau of Education until 1906 and transferred to the Smithsonian National Museum in 1910. For more information, see MA.261298 and MA.261313.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
maker
Fujishima
ID Number
MA.261285
catalog number
261285
accession number
51116
This brass yard standard and matrix are stored in a mahogany case with brass handles on either end and brass hooks to secure the lid, one of which no longer closes. The yard standard has extensions on either side which make it 104 cm (41") long.
Description
This brass yard standard and matrix are stored in a mahogany case with brass handles on either end and brass hooks to secure the lid, one of which no longer closes. The yard standard has extensions on either side which make it 104 cm (41") long. The yard fits into a matrix, which is divided into tenths, with the first division also divided into tenths. The yard and matrix each weigh 13 lbs., 4 oz. The case also contains 4 mahogany wedges and 3 mahogany rectangles, each less than 7 cm long. A scriber and square were originally in the case.
This yard standard is one of those distributed by the Treasury Department to the states after Congress set standard measures on June 14, 1833. Sets of weights were distributed to the states by 1838. Metric length standards were distributed to the states and to customhouses into the 1860s. The Bureau of Standards transferred this object to the Smithsonian in 1929.
Reference: Rexmond C. Cochrane, Measures for Progress (Washington, D.C.: National Bureau of Standards, 1966), p. 27-28.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1836
maker
United States Office of Weights and Measures
ID Number
MA.309586
accession number
103830
catalog number
309586
This promotional black plastic six-inch ruler is divided along the top edge to sixteenths of an inch and numbered from 1 to 6. The bottom edge has six one-inch sections, divided to 1/10", 1/12", 1/16", 1/24", 1/32", and 1/64", respectively.
Description
This promotional black plastic six-inch ruler is divided along the top edge to sixteenths of an inch and numbered from 1 to 6. The bottom edge has six one-inch sections, divided to 1/10", 1/12", 1/16", 1/24", 1/32", and 1/64", respectively. The center of the ruler is marked: MARCHANT CALCULATORS. Between these words is marked: NORMAN G. HOUGH (/) 1412 Eye St., N.W. Washington, D. C. (/) Republic 1673-74-75. A 1946 calendar is on the back of the ruler. Compare to MA.293320.2816.
The Marchant Calculating Machine Company of Oakland, Calif., was the oldest and one of the most influential American manufacturers of mechanical and electronic calculators. Established in 1911, the firm quickly built up a national sales network, with receipts of $12,000,000 in 1946. In 1958, the company merged with Smith-Corona, Inc., a manufacturer of typewriters, adding machines, and cash registers. A slow decline resulted for the combined firm, as electronic computers began performing the tasks of Smith-Corona Marchant's machines. SCM stopped selling calculators in 1973. Over 150 of Marchant's products and related documentation are in the Smithsonian collections.
Norman G. Hough, Sr., presumably distributed Marchant calculating machines in Washington, D.C. It is not known whether he was the same Norman G. Hough who directed a trade organization for lime and concrete from the 1910s to the 1930s.
References: "Marchant Calculator," http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marchant_Calculator; Nigel Tout, "Marchant," Vintage Calculators Web Museum, http://www.vintagecalculators.com/html/marchant.html; Ernie Jorgenson, "My Years with Marchant," December 1987, Xnumber World of Calculators, ed. James Redin, http://www.xnumber.com/xnumber/marchant.htm.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1946
distributor
Marchant Calculating Machine Company
maker
Marchant Calculators
ID Number
MA.293320.2811
catalog number
293320.2811
accession number
293320
This undivided black hard-rubber rule is beveled along both long edges. It is marked: I. R. C. CO. (/) GOODYEAR. Scratched on the back of the rule is: Brereton. IRC, or Inoue Rubber Company, was established in Japan in 1926 to make bicycle tires and tubes.
Description
This undivided black hard-rubber rule is beveled along both long edges. It is marked: I. R. C. CO. (/) GOODYEAR. Scratched on the back of the rule is: Brereton. IRC, or Inoue Rubber Company, was established in Japan in 1926 to make bicycle tires and tubes. The reference to Goodyear is likely to the manufacturing process pioneered by Charles Goodyear and not to the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company. Brereton was presumably the original owner of the instrument, which was acquired by the Museum in 1961. Compare to MA.327306.
Reference: IRC Tire, "About Us," http://www.irc-tire.com/en/bc/company/
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1926–1961
ID Number
MA.319738
accession number
239019
catalog number
319738
Joseph André Fresco of Angers, France, applied for a patent on a combination pencil and line-measurer on June 6, 1879. The model he submitted with his application was found in the Smithsonian collections in 1958.
Description
Joseph André Fresco of Angers, France, applied for a patent on a combination pencil and line-measurer on June 6, 1879. The model he submitted with his application was found in the Smithsonian collections in 1958. It consists of a rectangular brass tube with a round dial at one end and a pencil holder at the other. A gear on the pencil holder causes it to extend and retract. The pencil holder is marked: J FRANK. The dial has a magnetic compass encased in glass on one side, but the needle does not point toward North and appears not to be magnetized.
The other side of the dial has two intersecting circles marked in pencil, one divided to single units and numbered by fives from 0 to 20 and one divided to single units and numbered by ones from 0 to 10. Each circle has a wire for counting. A gear protrudes from the top of the dial case. The user was to run the gear along a map or scaled drawing. The counters would then measure up to 200 km on the drawing. The gear and counters do function on this instrument, both forwards and backwards, but probably not in a uniform manner.
A paper tag is marked: [2–225.] (/) No. 222,687 1879. (/) J. A. Fresco (/) Combined Penc (/) –il and Line Meas (/) –ures (/) Patented Dec. 16 (/) Rotary (/) measure (/) 1879. The patent drawing is pasted to the back of the tag. A second tag is marked: 79 Joseph A. Fresco (/) Stadio Curvimeter (/) Received June 3 (/) Issue.
According to the 1861 English census, Fresco was born in April 1854 in St. Giles, London. He worked in Angers, France, as a mechanical dentist. In 1879 he communicated with inventor William Robert Lake of London, who designed a similar device entitled "An Improved Instrument or Apparatus for the Linear Measurements of Drawings or Plans."
References: Joseph A. Fresco, "Improvement in Combined Pencil and Line Measurer" (U.S. Patent 222,687 issued December 16, 1879); The Commissioners of Patents' Journal, no. 2637 (April 11, 1879): 896.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1879
patent date
1879-12-16
patentee
Fresco, Joseph A.
ID Number
MA.315274
accession number
219305
catalog number
315274
On one face this 12" steel triangular rule has scales for 3/16" and 3/8" to the foot. Between these scales is a scale divided to 3/32", numbered from left to right by twos from 0 to 62, and numbered from right to left by fours from 4 to [1]24.
Description
On one face this 12" steel triangular rule has scales for 3/16" and 3/8" to the foot. Between these scales is a scale divided to 3/32", numbered from left to right by twos from 0 to 62, and numbered from right to left by fours from 4 to [1]24. The second face has a scale of inches numbered by ones from 1 to 12. The first two inches are divided to 1/128"; the next two inches are divided to 1/64"; inches 4–6 are divided to 1/32"; inches 6–8 are divided to 1/16"; and inches 8–12 are divided to 1/8".
The third face also has a scale of inches numbered by ones from 1 to 12. The first two inches are divided to 1/100"; the next two inches are divided to 1/50"; inches 4–6 are divided to 1/20"; inches 6–8 are divided to 1/96"; inches 8–10 are divided to 1/48"; and inches 10–12 are divided to 1/24". This side is marked: W. Metcalf 1882.
Sisters Elizabeth Henshaw Metcalf (1852–1925) and Sarah Spathding Metcalf (1858–1939) donated this rule to the Smithsonian in 1931, within several containers of materials sent from the family home in Worcester, Mass. The bulk of the materials were ethnographic specimens collected by the women as they visited and lived in the Philippines at various times between 1905 and their deaths. The name on the rule probably refers to their brother, Wallace Metcalf (1854–1904). He graduated from Worcester Polytechnic Institute with a degree in mechanical engineering in 1873, lived with his sisters for many years, and worked in Worcester as a civil engineer.
References: Cherubim A. Quizon, "Two Yankee Women at the St. Louis Fair: The Metcalf Sisters and their Bagobo Sojourn in Mindanao," Philippine Studies 52, no. 4 (2004): 527–555; "Alumni Notes," The Journal of the Worcester Polytechnic Institute 7, no. 4 (May 1904): 355; accession file.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1882
owner
Metcalf, W.
ID Number
MA.362778
accession number
114868
catalog number
362778
This yew wood and brass rule finds the number of weeks between two dates that were up to two years apart. The months of the year are listed along the right edge, from January to December, twice.
Description
This yew wood and brass rule finds the number of weeks between two dates that were up to two years apart. The months of the year are listed along the right edge, from January to December, twice. The month names are adjacent to a continuous calendar for the 24 months, with seven days per row. A brass slide to the left of the calendar is numbered from 1 to 104 (for two years of weeks). A ring at the top for hanging the rule is marked: TIME TABLE. Dock companies used the rule to compute storage charges for goods shipped to or from British ports.
The right edge is marked: DRING & FAGE MAKERS TOOLEY ST LONDON. The English firm established by John Dring and William Fage operated at various locations on Tooley Street from 1792 to 1882. For another timetable, or rent, rule by this maker, see inventory number 1954–305 at the Science Museum in South Kensington, London, http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/mathematics/1954-305.aspx. The Science Museum owns several dozen other objects by this maker; see http://collectionsonline.nmsi.ac.uk/detail.php?type=related&kv=2628&t=people.
The back of the rule is stenciled: HWE. The Smithsonian acquired this object in 1962. No further information on the original owner is available.
Reference: Adler Planetarium, Webster Signature Database, http://historydb.adlerplanetarium.org/signatures/.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1792–1882
maker
Dring & Fage
ID Number
MA.320636
catalog number
320636
accession number
242721
An iron caliper with only one bar is nailed to one end of this bamboo rule. The caliper extends back about 3". The ruler is divided into 17 units of 1-3/16" (3 cm), and the units are subdivided into tenths.
Description
An iron caliper with only one bar is nailed to one end of this bamboo rule. The caliper extends back about 3". The ruler is divided into 17 units of 1-3/16" (3 cm), and the units are subdivided into tenths. Each unit is roughly equivalent to one sun, a traditional Japanese unit of length that is 1/10 of a shaku, a "foot" measure. Bulls-eyes mark every five units. A red and white sticker on the caliper is marked: 10th (/) No 222.
The Japanese Empire Department of Education displayed this rule at the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. It then was held by the Museum of the U.S. Bureau of Education until it was transferred to the Smithsonian in 1910. For more information, see MA.261298 and MA.261313.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
ID Number
MA.261299
catalog number
261299
accession number
51116
This promotional white plastic six-inch ruler is divided along the top edge to sixteenths of an inch and numbered by fourths from 1 to 6. The bottom edge has six one-inch sections, three of which are divided to 1/12" and three of which are divided to 1/10".
Description
This promotional white plastic six-inch ruler is divided along the top edge to sixteenths of an inch and numbered by fourths from 1 to 6. The bottom edge has six one-inch sections, three of which are divided to 1/12" and three of which are divided to 1/10". The ruler is marked: PRODUCTS OF Friden THE NATURAL WAY ADDING MACHINE (/) THE AUTOMATIC CALCULATOR (/) THE COMPUTYPER (/) DATA PROCESSING MACHINES. It is also marked: FRIDEN, INC. (/) 1724 Wisconsin Avenue, N.W. (/) Washington 7, D.C. (/) Phone ADams 2-6377.
The back of the ruler has lists of decimal equivalents for twelfths, eighths, and sixteenths. Another list gives the number of days from January 1 to the first of each month. The right edge has a 15cm ruler, divided to millimeters. The bottom edge is marked: Printed in U.S.A.
During World War I, Carl Friden (1891–1945) emigrated from Sweden to Australia and then to the United States. He patented numerous improvements to calculating machines while working for the Marchant Calculating Machine Company of Oakland, Calif. With his royalties, he established Friden Calculating Machine Company in 1933. After briefly renting factory space, the firm built a factory in San Leandro, Calif., in 1937. In addition to calculating machines, Friden made precision machine tools and aircraft instruments. After purchasing Commercial Controls Corporation in 1957, it began making automatic electric typewriters for producing mass business correspondence. The Singer Corporation purchased the company in 1965 and phased out the Friden brand name in 1974.
Friden opened a branch office in Washington, D.C., by 1935 and operated it until around 1980. Waverly Dickson (1909–1967) was the branch manager from 1935 to 1967, and he and his sister, Lulie Dickson, owned the building at 1724 Wisconsin Ave. Theodore A. Peck (1892–1978) was the sales manager from 1945 to 1968. Large American cities used postal zone numbers from 1943 to 1963, hence the dating of the object.
The Smithsonian owns at least 18 Friden calculators and nearly 20 pieces of related documentation. For promotional rulers by Monroe's chief competitors, see MA.293320.2811, MA.293320.2812, and MA.293320.2816.
References: John Wolff, "The Friden Calculating Machine Company," December 9, 2012, John Wolff's Web Museum, http://home.vicnet.net.au/~wolff/calculators/Friden/Friden.htm; "Waverly Dickson, Manager of Firm," Washington Post (March 24, 1967), B6; "Theodore Peck, Retired Sales Manager for Friden," Washington Post (November 11, 1978), B6.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1943–1963
distributor
Friden, Inc.
maker
Friden, Inc.
ID Number
MA.293320.2813
catalog number
293320.2813
accession number
293320
These two 2' boxwood rules are identical to each other and to MA.333945 and MA.318174. The top of one side has a scale of inches, divided to tenths of an inch and numbered by ones from 23 to 1.
Description
These two 2' boxwood rules are identical to each other and to MA.333945 and MA.318174. The top of one side has a scale of inches, divided to tenths of an inch and numbered by ones from 23 to 1. On the left are 10" and 9" (divided to 1/2") plotting scales with diagonal scales at each end. In the middle are scales for rhumbs, chords, sines, tangents, and semitangents. On the right are scales for leagues, rhumbs, miles of longitude, and chords. Brass pins at the zero and 60° marks reduce wear from the points of dividers, which were used to transfer measurements between the scale and the user's drawing.
The other side has logarithmic scales: sines of rhumbs, tangents of rhumbs, line of numbers, sines of degrees, versines of degrees, and tangent of degrees. At the bottom edge are a meridional line and a scale of equal parts that divides 23" into 17 sections. The sections are numbered by tens from 60 to 10 and from 100 to 0.
The first rule is marked on the first side in the lower right corner: BELCHER BROTHERS MAKERS (/) New York. ("New York" is in script.) On the other side, this rule is marked at the top center: J. J. WARREN. The second rule is marked on the first side in the lower right corner: BELCHER BROS. & Co. NEW – YORK.
Thomas Belcher began making rules in New York in 1821 and was joined by his brother, William, in 1825. Around 1831, another brother, Charles, joined the firm, and the company's name was changed from T. & W. Belcher to Belcher Brothers. The first rule dates to this period. Around 1843, manufacturing of rules moved to New Jersey and the firm went by the name Belcher & Bros. Around 1853 some of the men's sons joined the firm, and the name was changed to Belcher Bros. & Co. The second rule dates to this period. The company had become the largest American manufacturer of rules, but it was surpassed by Stanley in the second half of the 19th century. Belcher stopped manufacturing rules around 1877. The Smithsonian purchased these rules in 1961, and no information is known about J. J. Warren, the name on the first rule.
References: Otto van Poelje, "Gunter Rules in Navigation," Journal of the Oughtred Society 13, no. 1 (2004): 11–22; Belcher Bros. & Co.'s Price List of Boxwood & Ivory Rules (New York, 1860; reprint, Fitzwilliam, N.H.: Ken Roberts Publishing Co., 1982); Philip A. Cannon II, "The Makers and Markers of Gauges, Rules, Squares, and Tapes," http://www.pactu.com/makers.htm.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1853–1877
ca 1831–1843
maker
Belcher Brothers
ID Number
MA.319077
accession number
236088
catalog number
319077
This object consists of paper laminated to both sides of two wooden boards that are held together by two brass hinges and fastened with a brass hook. The front gives instructions for using the 100-line logarithmic table that appears on the inside two pages.
Description
This object consists of paper laminated to both sides of two wooden boards that are held together by two brass hinges and fastened with a brass hook. The front gives instructions for using the 100-line logarithmic table that appears on the inside two pages. To multiply, the user looked up the first multiplicand, noted the number of the line on which the multiplicand appeared, and measured the distance from the left of the line to the multiplicand. Then, the user repeated the process with the second multiplicand. The product appeared on the sum of the line numbers at the sum of the distances. (For instance, the number 4 is on line 60 and the number 2 is on line 30, so the number 8 is on line 90.)
The table could also be used for division, calculations of interest, finding logarithms, and finding the numbers when the logarithm is known. A diagonal scale at the bottom of page three allowed for interpolation of values. A card or ruler was necessary for recording the distances. The back of the object has a 31-line chart of trigonometrical ratios for finding logarithmic sines and cosines. The bottom of the back is marked: Copyrighted September, 1893, by C. W. GOODCHILD.
Cecil Wray Goodchild (1847–1900) was born in England but lived in central California by 1880. By 1893, he was a civil engineer and attorney in San Luis Obispo. He designed this chart to meet the needs of those surveyors, engineers, and accountants who required greater accuracy in their work than that provided by an ordinary slide rule, but who did not wish to purchase an expensive instrument such as the Thacher cylindrical slide rule.
In 1903 and 1906, Keuffel & Esser advertised his invention as the Goodchild Mathematical Chart, model 4019. It sold on paper for 75¢ and on a flat board for $2.75. For an additional $5.00, K&E offered a sliding triangular rule for recording and adding the line numbers and distances.
References: Library of Congress, Catalogue of Title-Entries of Books and Other Articles Entered . . . Under the Copyright Law, no. 116 (18–23 September 1893): 19; "A Slide Rule Fifty Feet Long," The Cornell Daily Sun 14, no. 83 (31 January 1894); Catalogue and Price List of Keuffel & Esser Co., 31st ed. (New York, 1903), 298; Catalogue and Price List of Keuffel & Esser Co., 32nd ed. (New York, 1906), 317.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1893–1903
inventor
Goodchild, C. W.
ID Number
MA.318472
catalog number
318472
accession number
235479
This combination instrument may be used to measure distances of up to 24 inches, to measure angles, to solve problems relating to ratios, to assist in finding the area of triangles when the lengths of three sides are known, and to add three-digit numbers.
Description
This combination instrument may be used to measure distances of up to 24 inches, to measure angles, to solve problems relating to ratios, to assist in finding the area of triangles when the lengths of three sides are known, and to add three-digit numbers. It is in the general shape of a four-fold rule, with a wooden core covered on both sides with German silver. A scale of inches, divided to 1/16" and numbered by ones from 1 to 12 twice, runs along the outer edges of the arms. Along the inner edges of both arms are scales of equal parts, with 30 parts to the inch.
A protractor is at the center joint. A hollow in one arm contains two rules. One rule unfolds to reveal a 10" scale and a scale of 30 parts per inch. The other rule has a 4-1/2" scale and a scale of 30 parts per inch. These rules are supposed to attach to slides that move in a groove in one of the arms, allowing the solution of problems of proportion. To add numbers, one removes the longer rule from the groove, and places it alongside the scale on the arm.
A third rule slides and pivots in a hollow in the other arm. Using this rule and the two arms of the instrument as sides, one can represent a triangle. The grooved arm serves as the base and a rule sliding in the groove measures the height of the triangle, from which one can calculate its area.
The object is marked: Nels Ockerlund New York. Nels Ockerlund (1837–1903) was born in Sweden. He immigrated to the United States in 1865 and settled in New York City. In addition to the improved rule and calculator represented by this patent model, he took out a second patent in 1870 for an improvement in adding-machines. He became a citizen in 1879 and is listed in the 1900 census as still living in New York City.
References: Nels Ockerlund, "Improvement in Rule and Calculator" (U.S. Patent 102,034 issued April 19, 1870), and "Improvement in Adding Machine" (U.S. Patent 105,717 issued July 26, 1870).
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1870
maker
Ockerlund, Nels
ID Number
MA.309330
catalog number
309330
accession number
89797
This metal rule unfolds to a length of 14-7/8" (38 cm). One side is divided into ten units of 1-1/2" (3.7 cm). The units are subdivided into 20 parts. The hinge is shaped like a protractor.
Description
This metal rule unfolds to a length of 14-7/8" (38 cm). One side is divided into ten units of 1-1/2" (3.7 cm). The units are subdivided into 20 parts. The hinge is shaped like a protractor. It is divided unevenly into five units marked with Japanese characters that have not been translated. From the right, the divisions are at approximately 10°, 30°, 60°, 90°, and 135°.
The other side has a scale 30.3 cm long that is divided into ten sun, a traditional Japanese unit of length that is 1/10 of a shaku, a "foot" measure. Each unit is 1-3/16" and is subdivided into 20 parts.
The Japanese Empire Department of Education displayed this rule at the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. It then was held by the Museum of the U.S. Bureau of Education before transfer to the Smithsonian in 1910. For more information, see MA.261298 and MA.261313.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
ID Number
MA.261294
catalog number
261294
accession number
51116
A rectangular paulownia wood case has a red and white sticker on the right end marked: 45 (/) M. Inside the case are seven bamboo rulers, six that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long and one that is 2-1/4" (15.5 cm).
Description
A rectangular paulownia wood case has a red and white sticker on the right end marked: 45 (/) M. Inside the case are seven bamboo rulers, six that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long and one that is 2-1/4" (15.5 cm). The first rule is either ebonized or coated with blackboard paint. The front is marked in Japanese: Made by Kokoudo Fujishima. The scales along both edges are identical, divided to fifths of a unit and numbered by twos from 2 to 96. Each unit is 1/8" (3 mm), and the scales are both labeled: 1/8. The back of the rule is stamped: 7.
The second rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 4 500. The scales along both edges are identical, 30 cm long, divided to tenths of a unit, and numbered by twenties from 2[0] to 1340. The scales thus correspond to dividing the meter into 4,500 parts. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also stamped: 1 (/) 4500.
The third rule has a scale labeled "1000 FEET" along one edge. It is divided to fives and numbered in both directions by hundreds from 0 to 1,000. Each increment of 100 units is 1-3/16" (3.05 cm) long. The other edge is divided by ones and numbered in both directions by tens from 0 to 250. This scale is labeled: 250 FEET. The scales are 12" (30.5 cm) long. The back of the rule is marked: Fujishima.
The fourth rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 250. The scales along both edges are identical, 12-1/16" (30.7 cm) long, divided to single units, and numbered by tens from 0 to 250. The back of the rule is stamped in red: FOOT. It is also stamped: 1 (/) 250. It is also stamped: C-1.
The fifth rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 200. The scales along both edges are identical, 12" (30.5 cm) long, divided to single units, and numbered by tens from 0 to 200. The back of the rule is stamped in red: FOOT. It is also stamped: 1 (/) 200. It is also stamped: 5. Handwriting in Japanese on the back of the rule has not been translated.
The sixth rule has scales for 3/8" to the foot and 3/4" to the foot along one edge. The other edge has scales for 1-1/2" to the foot and 3" to the foot. The back of the rule is stamped in red: FOOT. It is also stamped: C-1.
The scales on the seventh and shortest rule are 1-13/16" (4.6 cm) long and numbered by ones from 0 to 3. The scale along one edge is divided to quarter-units, and the scale on the other edge is divided to twelfths of a unit. The rule is marked on the back: 1/20. It is also stamped in red: 1.
These rules were likely used in engineering and architectural drawing. Compare to MA.261284, MA.261285, MA.261286, and MA.261287. The rules were exhibited by the Japanese Empire Department of Education at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. They then were displayed by the Museum of the U.S. Bureau of Education until 1906 and transferred to the Smithsonian National Museum in 1910. For more information, see MA.261298 and MA.261313.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
maker
Fujishima
ID Number
MA.261283
catalog number
261283
accession number
51116
This eight-inch wooden rule is divided to 1/16-inch. Various mischievous figures are depicted on the front. On the back, the rule is marked: Mrs.
Description
This eight-inch wooden rule is divided to 1/16-inch. Various mischievous figures are depicted on the front. On the back, the rule is marked: Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup (/) Has been used for over FIFTY YEARS by MILLIONS of MOTHERS for their CHILDREN WHILE TEETHING, with (/) PERFECT SUCCESS. It SOOTHES the CHILD, SOFTENS the GUMS, ALLAYS all PAIN, CURES WIND COLIC, (/) and is the best remedy for DIARRHOEA. Sold by Druggists in every part of the world. Be sure and ask (/) for "Mrs. WINSLOW'S SOOTHING SYRUP," and take no other kind. Twenty-five Cents a Bottle.
The ruler was distributed to advertise a medication compounded by Charlotte N. Winslow, a physician and nurse. Her son-in-law, Jeremiah Curtis, and Benjamin A. Perkins began bottling and selling the syrup in Bangor, Me., in 1849. The product was effective at quieting fussy infants—because it contained 65 mg of morphine per fluid ounce. Users unknowingly risked addiction, poisoning, and death. After the Food and Drug Act of 1906 required manufacturers to list ingredients on product labels, the makers of the syrup stopped using morphine and removed "Soothing" from the product's name. However, at least as late as 1912, health officials were still finding the original version on store shelves. For bottles of the syrup, see MG*293320.1290, 1989.0711.35, and MG*M-10426.
References: Hagley Museum and Library, "Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup," Patent Medicine, http://www.hagley.org/library/exhibits/patentmed/items/mrswinslows.html; A. B. Hirsch, "Mrs. Winslow's Soothing Syrup," American Medical Journal 12, no. 11 (1884): 504–506; "Baby Killers," in Nostrums and Quackery, 2nd ed. (Chicago: American Medical Association Press, 1912), 432–435.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1900–1912
ID Number
MA.293320.2817
accession number
293320
catalog number
293320.2817
Seven bamboo rulers, five that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long and two that are 2-1/4" (15.5 cm), are in a rectangular paulownia wood case. Labels have been torn away from inside the case lid and the right end of the case.The first and second rules are identical.
Description
Seven bamboo rulers, five that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long and two that are 2-1/4" (15.5 cm), are in a rectangular paulownia wood case. Labels have been torn away from inside the case lid and the right end of the case.
The first and second rules are identical. They have a groove along one edge. The other edge has a scale 30.3 cm long that is divided into ten sun, a traditional Japanese unit of length that is 1/10 of a shaku, a "foot" measure. Each unit is 1-3/16" (3 cm) long. The first seven units are subdivided into 20 parts, the eighth into 40 parts, the ninth into 50 parts, and the tenth into 100 parts. The center of each unit is marked with a dot. The center of the rule has five horizontal and two vertical dots that form a "T."
The third rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 32. It has scales for 3/8" to the foot and 3/4" to the foot along both edges. The back is marked: FOOT. It is also marked: 1/32. It is also stamped in red: 1.
The fourth rule is ebonized. The front is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. The scales along both edges are identical, divided to fifths of a unit and numbered by fives from 5 to 140. Each increment of five units is 13/32" (1.1 cm) long, and the scales are both labeled: 1/12. The back of the rule is stamped: 1 (/) 12. It is also stamped: 6.
The fifth rule has two scales of inches, divided to 1/16" on one edge and to 1/12" on the other. Both scales are numbered by ones from 1 to 12. The back is stamped in red: INCH. It is also marked: 1 (/) 16. It is also marked: 1 (/) 12. It is also marked: 3.
The sixth and seventh rules have scales that are 1-5/16" long. Both rules are divided along both edges into eight units that are subdivided into tenths. On the sixth rule, the scales are numbered by tens from 0 to 80. The back is marked: 1/500. It is also stamped in red: 9. The scales on the seventh rule are numbered by ones from 0 to 8. The back is marked: 1/40. It is also stamped in red: 2.
These rules were likely used in engineering and architectural drawing. Compare to MA.261283, MA.261285, MA.261286, and MA.261287. The rules were exhibited by the Japanese Empire Department of Education at the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. They then were displayed by the Museum of the U.S. Bureau of Education until 1906 and transferred to the Smithsonian National Museum in 1910. For more information, see MA.261298 and MA.261313.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
maker
Fujishima
ID Number
MA.261284
catalog number
261284
accession number
51116
Measuring devices can serve as political symbols. After the Meiji restoration of 1868, Japanese leaders embraced institutions of Western nations, including compulsory elementary education and laboratory training in science and engineering.
Description
Measuring devices can serve as political symbols. After the Meiji restoration of 1868, Japanese leaders embraced institutions of Western nations, including compulsory elementary education and laboratory training in science and engineering. Japanese instrument makers such as the firm of Kokoudo Fujishima also endeavored to modernize by adopting Western forms of instruments and Western units of measurement. Many Fujishima products thus were divided according to the British inch and the French meter.
The Japanese Empire Department of Education, established in 1870 in part to ensure the Westernization of Japan's primary, middle, and secondary schools, included Fujishima rules in its display at the 1876 World's Fair, the Centennial Exhibition of Philadelphia. However, the government had not made a clean break with Japanese technology and culture as it existed before the United States opened trade with Japan in the 1850s. Instead, the Department of Education's exhibit also contained instruments marked with traditional Japanese units of measurement, such as the sun and shaku. For instance, see MA.261291, MA.261292, MA.261293, and MA.261299. Objects such as MA.261284 and MA.261294 combined Eastern and Western units of measurement.
This set of six bamboo scales consists of four rulers that are just over 12" (about 31 cm) long, one that is 7-3/4" (19.7 cm), and one that is 2-3/16" (15.6 cm). They are stored in a rectangular paulownia wood case that has a red and white sticker on the right end marked: No. 45 (/) M.
The first rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 20. It has scales for 1-3/16" to the foot and 5/16" to the foot along both edges. The back is marked: FOOT. It is also marked: 1/20. It is also stamped in red: 1.
The second rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 30000. The scales along both edges are identical, 30 cm long, divided to hundreds, and numbered by three hundreds from 0 to 9,000. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also marked: 1 (/) 30000. It is also marked: 4.
The third rule is marked in Japanese: Made by Fujishima. It is also marked: 3000. The scales along both edges are identical, 30 cm long, divided to single units, and numbered by twenties from 0 to 900. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also marked: 1 (/) 3000. It is also marked: 4.
The fourth rule has a scale labeled "250" along one edge. It is divided to fourths and numbered in both directions by ones from 0 to 75. The other edge is divided by halves and numbered by twos from 0 to 150. This scale is labeled: 500. The scales are 30 cm long. The back of the rule is stamped in red: METRE. It is also marked: 1 (/) 250. It is also marked: 1 (/) 500. It is also marked: 8. Handwritten Japanese characters on the back have been translated: Metric Rokuemon.
The fifth rule has a slot down the middle. Both scales are numbered in Japanese. One scale is 6" (15.3 cm) long and is divided into five sun, a traditional Japanese unit of length that is 1/10 of a shaku, a "foot" measure. The first unit is subdivided into 50 parts, and the other four units are subdivided into 20 parts. The center of each unit is marked with a dot. The other scale is 4-3/8" (10.9 cm) long and is marked at irregular intervals. The back is not marked.
The scales on the sixth and shortest rule are 2" (5.1 cm) long, divided to single units, and numbered by threes from 0 to 15. The rule is stamped in red on the back: 1 (/) 30000. It is also marked: 6.
After the fair the U.S. Commissioner of Education, John Eaton, arranged for the transfer of the Japanese Empire Department of Education's entire exhibit to the Bureau of Education (then part of the Department of the Interior) for a planned museum. The museum closed in 1906 due to high maintenance costs, and much of the collection was transferred to the Smithsonian in 1910.
References: Japan. Department of Education, An Outline History of Japanese Education: Prepared for the Philadelphia International Exhibition, 1876 (New York: D. Appleton, 1876), 121–122, 191–202; U.S. Centennial Commission, International Exhibition, 1876. Reports and Awards, ed. Francis A. Walker (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1880), viii:143, 335; U.S. Bureau of Education, Annual Report of the Commissioner (1876), ccxi–ccxii; Yukio Nagahira, "Transfer of Scientific Instrument Making Technology from Europe to Japan in Meiji Era," First International Conference on Business and Technology Transfer, Kyoto, Japan, October 20, 2002, http://www.jsme.or.jp/tsd/ICBTT/conference02/YukioNAGAHIRA.html.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1876
maker
Fujishima
ID Number
MA.261287
catalog number
261287
accession number
51116

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