Science & Mathematics

The Museum's collections hold thousands of objects related to chemistry, biology, physics, astronomy, and other sciences. Instruments range from early American telescopes to lasers. Rare glassware and other artifacts from the laboratory of Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxygen, are among the scientific treasures here. A Gilbert chemistry set of about 1937 and other objects testify to the pleasures of amateur science. Artifacts also help illuminate the social and political history of biology and the roles of women and minorities in science.

The mathematics collection holds artifacts from slide rules and flash cards to code-breaking equipment. More than 1,000 models demonstrate some of the problems and principles of mathematics, and 80 abstract paintings by illustrator and cartoonist Crockett Johnson show his visual interpretations of mathematical theorems.

This spectroscope was designed to be used with a telescope to study the light of the sun. It was made in Dublin in 1877 by the famous instrument maker Howard Grubb (1844–1931).
Description
This spectroscope was designed to be used with a telescope to study the light of the sun. It was made in Dublin in 1877 by the famous instrument maker Howard Grubb (1844–1931). It was used with the 9 ½ inch Alvan Clark & Sons refractor at Princeton University.
When the College of New Jersey at Princeton hired the astronomer Charles A. Young in 1877, they also gave him funds to equip the new John C. Green student observatory. One of his first purchases was this instrument. It was custom-made, and Young helped refine the design. (Grubb's company later advertised that this was the first such spectroscope that they had sold.) The most unusual feature of this instrument is the use of a complicated system of multiple prisms to disperse the light and produce a highly detailed view of the solar spectrum.
In use, the spectroscope was mounted at the eyepiece end of the telescope and light from the sun would be directed through it. As the light passed from one prism into the next, it would be increasing dispersed, or spread out. To make the instrument more compact, the beam of light was directed first through the upper portion of the prisms and then back through the bottom part. Depending on how it was configured, the light could thus be passed through either 2, 4, 6 or 8 prisms. A particular area of the solar spectrum could be viewed by turning a small chain that moved each prism by the same amount. Because of the large number of optical surfaces involved, the light loss in this instrument was almost certainly in the 90 percent range. This was an advantage when viewing the Sun, but it reduced the usefulness of this instrument for other purposes, such as measuring the spectra of stars. The success of this instrument in making precise measurements of the solar spectrum (and thus revealing information about the composition of the sun and its atmosphere) led to its wider adoption as an important astronomical tool.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1877
user
Young, Charles A.
maker
Grubb, Howard
ID Number
PH.328885
accession number
277637
catalog number
328885
Most nineteenth century American clocks were cheaply made for the mass market and domestic use.
Description
Most nineteenth century American clocks were cheaply made for the mass market and domestic use. But a few firms made finely finished precision clocks for applications where accuracy was vital: determining the time of scientific observations, for example, or regulating other clocks and watches. One such firm was E. Howard and Company of Boston, specialists in quality clocks, watches, and scales since 1842.
Howard's 1860 catalog featured this clock. It was advertised as an "astronomical clock" available in various styles, sizes, and prices, and recommended for observatories, watchmakers' shops, and railroad depots. Such a clock is today called a regulator, a particularly accurate timepiece designed exclusively for keeping time. Nonessential complications like striking mechanisms, calendar work, and moon dials are omitted. The case is likewise unadorned. This particular clock has a sixteen-inch silvered dial that indicates hours, minutes, and seconds separately. The steel pendulum rod carries two glass jars filled with mercury. The expansion and contraction of the mercury compensates for changes in the rod's length as the room temperature rises and falls.
About 1855, E. Howard and Company sold this clock to James Allan and Company, a Charleston, South Carolina, jewelry firm whose name is engraved on the dial. The regulator stood in the same Allan family store (called Charles Kerrison Company after 1960) from 1865 until it came to the Smithsonian in 1977, except for one brief period. On August 31, 1886, the regulator fell over when an earthquake rocked Charleston, and it briefly returned to the Howard factory for repairs.
Location
Currently not on view
Currently not on view (pendulums)
Currently not on view (plaque)
Date made
1855-1859
manufacturer
E. Howard & Co.
ID Number
ME.335723
catalog number
335723
accession number
1977.0507
Arthur J. Weed was a skilled mechanic who, as chief instrument maker of the U.S. Weather Bureau, built and maintained the seismograph that Charles Marvin had designed in 1895.
Description
Arthur J. Weed was a skilled mechanic who, as chief instrument maker of the U.S. Weather Bureau, built and maintained the seismograph that Charles Marvin had designed in 1895. Moving in 1920 to the Rouss Physical Laboratory at the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Weed gained access to resources that allowed him to go further in this field. With the aid of engineering students, Weed built a inverted pendulum seismograph with a 750-pound weight. Photographs of Weed with this massive instrument ran as an A.P. story in several newspapers. One headline read: “Trapping earthquakes has become a popular business at the University of Virginia, where one of the most unique and sensitive seismographs in the country keeps a twenty-four hour watch for tremors.”
Weed also designed a smaller inverted pendulum seismograph that could “be used in many places where a more elaborate installation is out of the question.” One account described a cylindrical steady mass of about six pounds resting on three wires placed in the form of an equilateral triangle to which an oil damping device is attached.” This is an instrument of that sort. It came to the Smithsonian in 1963.
When Weed died in 1936, the chief seismologist of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey noted that “the science of seismology has lost one who has given much thought to instrumental problems, an active worker and a true friend.” The American Geophysical Union noted the loss of “a member who has long been active in the field of instrumental seismology.”
Ref: “Seismograph is Homemade,” Washington Post (July 10, 1927), p. 12, and Salt Lake Tribune (July 10, 1927), p. 10.
“Something New In Seismographs,” The Telegraph (May 4, 1932).
N. H. Heck, “Arthur J. Weed,” Science 83 (1936): 404.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1930
ID Number
PH.323393
catalog number
323393
accession number
251562
This engraved woodblock of "Marble Canyon” was prepared by engraver Edward Bookhout (1844-1886) and the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C.; the print was published in 1875 as Figure 26 (p.77) in Report of the Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and Its Tribu
Description
This engraved woodblock of "Marble Canyon” was prepared by engraver Edward Bookhout (1844-1886) and the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C.; the print was published in 1875 as Figure 26 (p.77) in Report of the Exploration of the Colorado River of the West and Its Tributaries. Explored in 1869, 1870, 1871, and 1872, under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution by John Wesley Powell (1834-1902). Thomas Moran (1837-1926) accompanied Powell on his expedition and drew the original image.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1875
1875
original artist
Moran, Thomas
publisher
Bureau of American Ethnology
printer
Government Printing Office
author
Powell, John Wesley
graphic artist
Bookhout, Edward
block maker
V. W. & Co.
ID Number
1980.0219.0259
catalog number
1980.0219.0259
accession number
1980.0219
Ira Freeman was a professor of physics at Rutgers University, and Mae Freeman an active author of beginner's books on a variety of topics.
Description
Ira Freeman was a professor of physics at Rutgers University, and Mae Freeman an active author of beginner's books on a variety of topics. Before 1957 the couple had collaborated on such popular science books as Fun With Chemistry (1944) and Fun With Astronomy (1953).
With the launch of Sputnik , the Freemans began writing books related to space travel. You Will go to the Moon and The Sun, the Moon and the Stars were both published in 1959. They also began to write scientific books for use in the home. Fun With Science (1958) was quickly followed by Fun With Scientific Experiments (1960).
Fun With Scientific Experiments was supplemented with the "Ed-U-Cards of Science."
Location
Currently not on view
Date made
1960
maker
Random House, Inc.
ID Number
2007.0041.02
catalog number
2007.0041.02
accession number
2007.0041
The 19th-century German pharmacist Karl Friedrich Mohr developed calibrated pipettes like this these for transferring specific amounts of a liquid. The quantity transferred was measured by changes in the height of the liquid.
Description
The 19th-century German pharmacist Karl Friedrich Mohr developed calibrated pipettes like this these for transferring specific amounts of a liquid. The quantity transferred was measured by changes in the height of the liquid. Mohr pipettes were manufactured by the Kimble Glass Company at its factory in Vineland, New Jersey from at least 1920.
By the mid-1920s, Kimble had a special line of "Kollegiate" glassware for high school and freshman college courses. This included two sets of Mohr pipettes. From 1959, Mohr pipettes were among the goods that could be purchased for use in high school biology and chemistry classes with matching funds from the U.S. federal government provided by the National Defense Education Act.
This particular pipette was sold under the name Kimax 51, a trademark first used by Kimble Glass Company in 1963. Calibrated at a temperature of 20 degrees centigrade, it held up to 10 milliliters, with divisions to 1/10 of a milliliter. It is a Kimax -51 Model 37019, in a size M. The orange mark near the top identifies the size and helped in sorting glassware.
Location
Currently not on view
maker
Kimax
ID Number
1998.0020.09
catalog number
1998.0020.09
accession number
1998.0020
This image appeared as the frontispiece of vol. 14 of the Encyclopaedia Londinensis (1816). The “Chapman sculp.” signature in the lower left may refer to John Chapman (fl. 1787-1811), a London engraver.
Description
This image appeared as the frontispiece of vol. 14 of the Encyclopaedia Londinensis (1816). The “Chapman sculp.” signature in the lower left may refer to John Chapman (fl. 1787-1811), a London engraver. The text at bottom (cropped from our copy) read “London Published April 13, 1816, by G. Jones.”
A “Description of the Frontispiece Illustrating Mechanics” appears on p. [1] of the book. It reads: “Archimedes, the founder of theoretical mechanics, is represented in a contemplative attitude, in the midst of his pupils and of the instruments of the mechanical powers. In the foreground a youth is tracing on the sand a diagram expressing the famous discovery of Archimedes, the proportion of the sphere to the cylinder; to which another, leaning on a book, is attentive. On the right hand are shown the action of the screw and the wedge, and higher up, of the balance. From the ceiling is suspended a system of pulleys. On the left is a globe, the hydrostatical bellows, and the pump which bears the name of Archimedes’s screw; the action of the inclined plane is also shown in the left corner; and in the back ground, on the same side, is a youth working a crane.”
Ref: Richard Yeo, Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture (Cambridge and New York, 20010
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1816
maker
London
ID Number
PH.329190
accession number
280072
catalog number
329190
Professor Jonathan Wittenberg used this model of sperm whale myoglobin structure as a teaching tool at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University in the Bronx.
Description (Brief)
Professor Jonathan Wittenberg used this model of sperm whale myoglobin structure as a teaching tool at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine at Yeshiva University in the Bronx. It was used beginning in the mid-1960s as part of his class on cell function, which would later come to be known as molecular biology. Wittenberg purchased the model from A. A. Barker, an employee of Cambridge University Engineering Laboratories, who fabricated the models for sale to interested scientists starting in May 1966 under the supervision of John Kendrew.
Between the years 1957 and 1959, John Kendrew, a British biochemist, figured out the complete structure of a protein. For his breakthrough he won the 1962 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, an award he shared with his co-contributor Max Perutz.
Proteins are large molecules used for a vast variety of tasks in the body. Knowing their structure is a key part of understanding how they function, as structure determines the way in which proteins interact with other molecules and can give clues to their purpose in the body.
Kendrew uncovered the structure of myoglobin using a method known as X-ray crystallography, a technique where crystals of a substance—in this case myoglobin—are grown and then bombarded with X-rays. The rays bounce off the atoms in the crystal at an angle and hit a photographic plate. By studying these angles, scientists can pinpoint the average location of single atoms within the protein molecule and piece this data together to figure out the complete structure of the protein.
Interestingly, Kendrew had a hard time getting enough crystals of myoglobin to work with until someone was kind enough to give him a slab of sperm whale meat. Myoglobin’s purpose in the body is to store oxygen in the muscles until needed. Sperm whales, as aquatic mammals, have to be very efficient at storing oxygen for their muscles during deep sea dives, which means they require a lot of myoglobin. Until the gift of the sperm whale meat, Kendrew couldn’t isolate enough myoglobin to grow crystals of sufficient size for his research.
Sources:
Accession file
“History of Visualization of Biological Macromolecules: A. A. Barker’s Models of Myoglobin.” Eric Francouer, University of Massachusetts-Amherst. http://www.umass.edu/molvis/francoeur/barker/barker.html
The Eighth Day of Creation: The Makers of the Revolution in Biology. Horace Freeland Judson. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: 1996.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1965
ID Number
2009.0111.01
accession number
2009.0111
catalog number
2009.0111.01
Charles A. Young, the professor of astronomy at the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), acquired this diffraction grating in 1878. The speculum metal plate measures 3 inches square overall, with the grating measuring 1.75 inch square.
Description
Charles A. Young, the professor of astronomy at the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University), acquired this diffraction grating in 1878. The speculum metal plate measures 3 inches square overall, with the grating measuring 1.75 inch square. It is marked: "May 28, 1878" and "16,560 spaces" and "8648 per inch" and "Manf. by D. C. Chapman with Mr. Rutherfurd's Engine." Daniel C. Chapman was the mechanic who operated the ruling engine designed by Lewis M. Rutherfurd.
Ref. D. J. Warner, "Lewis M. Rutherfurd: Pioneer Astronomical Photographer and Spectroscopist," Technology and Culture 12 (1971): 190-216.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1878
maker
Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris
ID Number
PH.330707
accession number
299612
catalog number
330707
This globe is 6 inches in diameter, with the moon's major known topographical features painted on in shades of gray, green, and black.
Description
This globe is 6 inches in diameter, with the moon's major known topographical features painted on in shades of gray, green, and black. A 60-degree-wide area on the far side of the moon is left blank on this globe, as these features were unknown at the time the globe was printed.
With the globe came an eight page booklet The Story of the Moon, written by Robert I. Johnson.
Location
Currently not on view
Date made
ca 1963
date received
1965 or 1966
maker
Replogle Globes
ID Number
PH.326612
accession number
268427
catalog number
326612
This engraved woodblock of an “Australian grave and carved trees” was prepared by the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C.; the image was published as Figure 37 (p.76) in an article by Garrick Mallery (1831-1894) entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: a pr
Description
This engraved woodblock of an “Australian grave and carved trees” was prepared by the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C.; the image was published as Figure 37 (p.76) in an article by Garrick Mallery (1831-1894) entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: a preliminary paper” in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian, 1882-83.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1886
publisher
Bureau of American Ethnology
printer
Government Printing Office
author
Mallery, Garrick
block maker
J. J. & Co.
ID Number
1980.0219.1206
catalog number
1980.0219.1206
accession number
1980.0219
People from ancient times knew that rubbing certain materials and then touching something caused a spark. Studying what is called electrostatics laid the groundwork for understanding electricity and magnetism.
Description (Brief)
People from ancient times knew that rubbing certain materials and then touching something caused a spark. Studying what is called electrostatics laid the groundwork for understanding electricity and magnetism. Natural philosophers, scientists, and instrument makers created many ingenious devices to generate electrostatic charges starting in the 1600s. These machines varied in size and technique but all involved rotary motion to generate a charge, and a means of transferring the charge to a storage device for use.
This machine was made by the "Chambers’ National Lightning Protection Company," established around 1880 by Josephus C. Chambers, Cincinnati to market his lightning protection system. Apparently Chambers branched out into more general electrical devices after negative reviews of his lightning system were published.
During the 1750s electrical researchers refined the design of electrostatic machines by replacing earlier spherical globes with a glass cylinder, a design used for many years. This change increased the surface area of the glass in contact with the rubbing pad and improved the efficiency of the generator. The Chambers machine shows a cruciform design with centrally-mounted cylinder that rubbed against a leather pad. A steel prime conductor with a comb on one end collected the charge. The glass rod serves as an insulator.
Location
Currently not on view
ID Number
EM.271855.08
accession number
271855
catalog number
271855.08
Small compound monocular microscope with coarse and fine focus, square stage, inclination joint, condenser on an arm, sub-stage mirror, and solid base.
Description
Small compound monocular microscope with coarse and fine focus, square stage, inclination joint, condenser on an arm, sub-stage mirror, and solid base. The “NACHET ET FILS / rue Serpente, 16, Paris” inscription refers to an important French optical firm that was begun by Camille Sebastien Nachet in 1839, that became Nachet et Fils around mid-century, and that moved from this address around 1862.
Ref: Nachet et Fils, Catalogue Descriptive des Instruments de Micrographie (Paris, 1863), p. 12.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1856-1862
maker
Nachet et Fils
ID Number
1991.0682.01
catalog number
1991.0682.01
accession number
1991.0682
This moon globe is 6 inches in diameter, with topographical features painted in shades of white, gray and tan. Three lunar landings are located and labeled.
Description
This moon globe is 6 inches in diameter, with topographical features painted in shades of white, gray and tan. Three lunar landings are located and labeled. One is the U.S.S.R.'s LUNIK 2, dated 9/12/59, and described as "First unmanned spacecraft to reach the moon." The second is the RANGER 4, dated 4/26/62, and described as "First U.S. unmanned spacecraft to reach the Moon." And there is the site of the U.S. APOLLO 11, dated 7/20/69, and described as "First manned spacecraft landing."
With the globe came a twelve-page booklet written by Robert I. Johnson, and titled The Story of the Moon. The cover shows a view of the moon composed from satellite photographs and carries the notation: "This book dedicated to the Flight of Apollo 8."
Location
Currently not on view
Date made
ca 1969
maker
Replogle Globes, Inc.
ID Number
1990.0015.02
accession number
1990.0015
catalog number
1990.0015.02
This is one of the earliest gratings made by Lewis M. Rutherfurd, and one of three that the pioneer astrophysicist, Henry Draper, acquired in the fall of 1872. The glass plate measures 2 inches square; the grating surface is 31/32 inches wide; the grooves are 13/16 inches long.
Description
This is one of the earliest gratings made by Lewis M. Rutherfurd, and one of three that the pioneer astrophysicist, Henry Draper, acquired in the fall of 1872. The glass plate measures 2 inches square; the grating surface is 31/32 inches wide; the grooves are 13/16 inches long. The plate is marked "6480 per inch 90 L. M. Rutherfurd."
Ref: Henry Draper, "On Diffraction Spectrum Photography," American Journal of Science 6 (1873): 401-409.
D. J. Warner, "Lewis M. Rutherfurd: Pioneer Astronomical Photographer and Spectroscopist," Technology and Culture 12 (1971): 190-216.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1872
maker
Rutherfurd, Lewis Morris
ID Number
PH.334274
accession number
304826
catalog number
334274
“Newsweek” Magazine, 84 pages, February 22, 1982, $1.50.
Description
“Newsweek” Magazine, 84 pages, February 22, 1982, $1.50. Pages 50-56 in the Business Section is entitled “To Each His Own Computer.” The lead picture is James Egan standing next to a display of computers and software in the New York City ComputerLand store.
James Egan, Joseph Alfieri, Robert Kurland, and Thomas Vandermeulen of Facks Computer, Inc. were the owners of the first ComputerLand store in Manhattan.
ComputerLand was a nationwide chain of retail computer stores. They opened their first store in 1976 in Hayward, California. By 1990 most stores had closed and in early 1999 the company officially disbanded.
The objects in accession 2017.0321 and non-accession 2017.3153 are related.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1982
ID Number
2017.3153.08
nonaccession number
2017.3153
catalog number
2017.3153.08
The 19th-century German pharmacist Karl Friedrich Mohr developed calibrated pipettes for adding specific amounts of one liquid to another. The Fisher Scientific Company sold Mohr pipettes like this one for routine or educational work, as its catalog number 13-665.
Description
The 19th-century German pharmacist Karl Friedrich Mohr developed calibrated pipettes for adding specific amounts of one liquid to another. The Fisher Scientific Company sold Mohr pipettes like this one for routine or educational work, as its catalog number 13-665. From the mid-1960s, they were sold under the FISHER-brand label, as this example was. It is a style K, having a capacity of 5 milliliters, divided to 1/10 of a milliliter and calibrated at a temperature of 20 degrees centigrade.
Fisher also sold a range of pipettes manufactured by other firms such as the Kimble Glass Company and Corning Glass Company. Mohr pipettes were among the goods that could be purchased for high school chemistry and biology classes in the late 1950s and 1960s with matching funds from the U.S. government.
Location
Currently not on view
producer
Mohr, Karl Friedrich
maker
Fisher Scientific Company
ID Number
1998.0020.12
catalog number
1998.0020.12
accession number
1998.0020
People from ancient times knew that rubbing certain materials and then touching something caused a spark. Studying what is called electrostatics laid the groundwork for understanding electricity and magnetism.
Description (Brief)
People from ancient times knew that rubbing certain materials and then touching something caused a spark. Studying what is called electrostatics laid the groundwork for understanding electricity and magnetism. Natural philosophers, scientists, and instrument makers created many ingenious devices to generate electrostatic charges starting in the 1600s. These machines varied in size and technique but all involved rotary motion to generate a charge, and a means of transferring the charge to a storage device for use.
Many early electrostatic machines generated a charge by friction. In the later 19th century several designs were introduced based on induction. Electrostatic induction occurs when one charged body (such as a glass disc) causes another body (another disc) that is close but not touching to become charged. The first glass disc is said to influence the second disc so these generators came to be called influence machines.
This machine—with two plates, one fixed and one that rotates--was made by Heinrich Ruhmkorff (1803-1877) of Germany in his Paris workshop. He is best known for the development of an induction coil still known as a Ruhmkorff coil. Designed by Wilhelm Holtz (1836–1913) four glass rods mounted on a mahogany base support two glass discs about 22" (56 cm) in diameter. The operator cranks driving pulleys to spin one plate. An extra set of combs are set at right angles to the ones typically seen in the basic Holtz design. One plate has two holes and paper tabs.
Research indicates this 2-plate machine may have been purchased by Joseph Henry for research use at the Smithsonian. Another Ruhmkorff machine with four plates designed in the 1870s is catalog #328747.
This machine was repaired in late 1958 and the parts replaced included the stationary plate, stationary plate holding-support screw, stationary plate positioning knob and ferrule, and the drive belts for the rotating plate The original glass plates are in storage.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1875
ca 1870
associated person
Holtz
maker
Ruhmkorff, Heinrich Daniel
ID Number
EM.311761
catalog number
311761
accession number
152769
This engraved woodblock of a “Haida totem post” was prepared by the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C.; the image was published as Figure 24 (p.68) in an article by Garrick Mallery (1831-1894) entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: a preliminary paper” i
Description
This engraved woodblock of a “Haida totem post” was prepared by the Government Printing Office in Washington, D.C.; the image was published as Figure 24 (p.68) in an article by Garrick Mallery (1831-1894) entitled “Pictographs of the North American Indians: a preliminary paper” in the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian, 1882-83.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1886
publisher
Bureau of American Ethnology
printer
Government Printing Office
author
Mallery, Garrick
block maker
J. J. & Co.
ID Number
1980.0219.1509
accession number
1980.0219
catalog number
1980.0219.1509
This sample of wheat came from the first field test designed to chart the movement of genetically modified microorganisms after their release into the environment.
Description (Brief)
This sample of wheat came from the first field test designed to chart the movement of genetically modified microorganisms after their release into the environment. In November of 1987, genetically modified soil bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas were planted along with winter wheat in a field in Blackville, S.C. The project was a joint effort of Monsanto, which had modified the organisms in the lab, and Clemson University, which carried out the field test.
The microorganisms were modified to contain harmless “marker genes” allowing scientists to distinguish them from naturally occurring Pseudomonas bacteria. After their release, scientists kept track of the movement of the modified bacteria in order to create a model for how genetically modified microbes migrate upon their release. Several months earlier, the release of genetically modified “ice-minus” bacteria (see object number 1987.0770.01) in California was the center of public concern.
Sources:
Accession File
“After Release, Altered Bacteria Stayed Close to Their Roots.” Renseberger, Boyce. The Washington Post. February 22, 1988. p. A3.
“Release of Altered Microbes Is Approved in Tracking Test.” Schneider, Keith. The New York Times. October 21, 1987. p. A19.
“Clemson Scientists Begin Field Testing of Microbe.” The Item. November 3, 1987. p.4B.
Location
Currently not on view
date made
ca 1987
ID Number
1995.0055.01
accession number
1995.0055
catalog number
1995.0055.01
This inverted microscope was used at Genentech, a biotechnology company. In a traditional light microscope (the kind most often used in high school biology classes), the light source comes from below a slide-mounted specimen and the observer views it from above.
Description (Brief)
This inverted microscope was used at Genentech, a biotechnology company. In a traditional light microscope (the kind most often used in high school biology classes), the light source comes from below a slide-mounted specimen and the observer views it from above. By contrast, an inverted microscope’s light source comes from above and the sample is viewed from the bottom.
This configuration eliminates the need for slide-mounting the specimen for observation and allows the observer to view samples in flasks or petri dishes. For this reason the inverted microscope is particularly useful in work with living cells and tissue culture, allowing both observation and manipulation of the sample.
Sources:
Goldstein, David. “Inverted Microscope.” Microscopy-UK. 1998. http://microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/artjul98/invert.html
Olympus. “Inverted biological microscope.” http://www.olympus-global.com/en/corc/history/story/micro/headstand/
Location
Currently not on view
date made
before 1995
circa 1970
user
Genentech, Inc.
maker
Olympus
ID Number
2012.0198.60
accession number
2012.0198
catalog number
2012.0198.60
Currently not on view
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1999
ID Number
2000.3047.014
catalog number
2000.3047.014
nonaccession number
2000.3047
Currently not on view
Location
Currently not on view
date made
1997
ID Number
2000.3047.013
catalog number
2000.3047.013
nonaccession number
2000.3047
The remarkable advances in electronics and microwave technology made during World War II stimulated the physicists who had worked on them to imagine new applications after the war for peacetime conditions.
Description
The remarkable advances in electronics and microwave technology made during World War II stimulated the physicists who had worked on them to imagine new applications after the war for peacetime conditions. An outstanding example is the cesium-beam frequency standard, one of several types of "atomic clock" developed in the postwar years.
This is the experimental instrument built under the supervision of Jerrold Zacharias at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1954. It showed that the atomic beam principle was feasible as a technique for extremely precise timekeeping, and paved the way immediately for a commercial version closely modeled on it.
The idea on which it relied had been known for two decades. The American physicist I. I. Rabi had applied it in the late 1930s to precise measurements of the magnetic moments and "spins" of nuclei of various kinds of atoms. Rabi knew that atoms behave as tiny magnets: a beam of them, traveling in a vacuum, can be deflected slightly by passing through a non-uniform magnetic field.
Furthermore, the strength of the atomic magnet, and its direction relative to that of the magnetic field, can be altered by microwaves whose frequency exactly matches (is in resonance with) a frequency characteristic of the atoms used in the experiment. Rabi's apparatus detected the change in deflection of the atomic beam when this resonance occurred.
In 1953, Zacharias, who as a graduate student had collaborated in Rabi's prewar experiments, started vigorous work on making such an atomic-beam apparatus function as a clock. By the next summer, he and his student R. D. Haun, assisted by visiting researcher J. G. Yates, were able to make the atomic vibrations of a cesium beam control a crystal oscillator, whose frequency then became as precise as that of the cesium atoms. This oscillator frequency in turn could be used for timekeeping far more precise than any previously possible.
The device shown is the atomic beam portion, the heart of the system, which was enclosed in a tall vacuum chamber when in use. Cesium atoms boiled out of an oven near the bottom and formed a beam, which passed a deflecting magnet, and then traversed a space in which it was subjected to the oscillating microwave field. It then passed a second deflecting magnet, which served to bring the atoms to a focus, as in Rabi's method, on a detector. This determined any deviation from resonance and sent a signal to circuits which adjusted the microwave frequency accordingly.
Zacharias's apparatus is noteworthy for being designed as a prototype for an instrument intended to be sold commercially. Unlike the traditional horizontal atomic beam apparatus, this one stood compactly vertical. It used permanent magnets rather than electromagnets; had convenient connections for vacuum pump, electronics, and microwaves; and had an oven designed to run for a long time without stopping. Zacharias persuaded the National Company, a manufacturer of radio equipment in nearby Malden, Mass., to take on the task of developing a commercial version under his supervision. After overcoming many difficulties, they began delivering the "Atomichron" in the autumn of 1956, mainly to military laboratories. Despite its high cost, $50,000, it sold well to those laboratories, and the Signal Corps declared that it "performed well beyond all expectations."
Reference: Paul Forman, "'Atomichron': The Atomic Clock from Concept to Commercial Product," Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol. 73, No. 7, July 1985, pp. 1811-1204.
Location
Currently not on view
Date made
1955
maker
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ID Number
EM.319767
catalog number
319767
accession number
254080

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