Energy & Power - Overview
The Museum's collections on energy and power illuminate the role of fire, steam, wind, water, electricity, and the atom in the nation's history. The artifacts include wood-burning stoves, water turbines, and windmills, as well as steam, gas, and diesel engines. Oil-exploration and coal-mining equipment form part of these collections, along with a computer that controlled a power plant and even bubble chambers—a tool of physicists to study protons, electrons, and other charged particles.
A special strength of the collections lies in objects related to the history of electrical power, including generators, batteries, cables, transformers, and early photovoltaic cells. A group of Thomas Edison's earliest light bulbs are a precious treasure. Hundreds of other objects represent the innumerable uses of electricity, from streetlights and railway signals to microwave ovens and satellite equipment.
"Energy & Power - Overview" showing 23 items.
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Laser Dyes
- Description
- Scientists first made lasers using solid crystals or mixtures of gasses in 1960. Lasers using liquid dyes were developed in 1965. Dyes proved useful for making lasers that could be tuned over a range of light frequencies, somewhat similar to a musical instrument that can be tuned to different sound frequencies. Each of these five glass ampoules contains about 1 microgram of dye in a solution with 50 milliliters of ethyl alcohol. The glass ampoules are storage containers. In operation a dye is typically pumped through the laser apparatus.
- These dye samples come from the Atomic Vapor Laser Isotope Separation Program (ALVIS) at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Light from a copper-vapor laser changed color (or frequency) by passing through a given dye, resulting in a laser beam with a specific frequency. Different frequencies equal different energy levels. Since atoms absorb energy at different frequencies, changing the laser light's color is a good way to impart just the right amount of energy needed to separate atoms such as isotopes that are almost, but not quite, identical.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1984
- maker
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
- ID Number
- 1985.0236.12
- accession number
- 1985.0236
- catalog number
- 1985.0236.12
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Home-made Laser
- Description
- The term “home-made laser” almost seems a contradiction but that is not the case. This gas laser was built by high school student Stephen M. Fry in 1964, only four years after Ali Javan made the first gas laser at Bell Labs. Fry followed plans published in Scientific American's "The Amateur Scientist" column in September 1964, (page 227).
- The glass tube is filled with helium and neon and, as the magazine reported, "seems to consist merely of a gas-discharge tube that looks much like the letter 'I' in a neon sign; at the ends of the tube are flat windows that face a pair of small mirrors. Yet when power is applied, the device emits as many as six separate beams of intense light."
- The discharge tube is the only piece of this particular laser that remains. The flat windows (called "Brewster windows") are square instead of round, and the electrodes are parallel to the gas tube instead of perpendicular. Otherwise it resembles the drawings in the magazine. Fry later earned a Ph.D. in physics with a dissertation on lasers.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1964
- date ordered, given, or borrowed
- 1985-03-15
- maker
- Fry, Stephen M.
- ID Number
- 1985.0269.01
- accession number
- 1985.0269
- catalog number
- 1985.0269.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Assay Flask
- Description
- The term "assay" implies an analysis for only a certain constituent (or constituents) of a mixture. A good example is the assay of an ore for gold. That sort of assay would be done using a dry method, i.e. heating the ore in a crucible.
- An assay can also be performed using a wet method. A good example is the extraction of an alkaloid from dried plant material. The plant sample is placed in a vessel into which a solvent is introduced. The active constituent is separated from the sample and extracted by chemical means.
- The flask featured here, with its sloping sides and narrow mouth, is used for the wet assay method. The sample and solvent would be combined in this vessel. Additional apparatus would be used for the separation and extraction of the active constituent.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- ID Number
- 1985.0311.064
- catalog number
- 1985.311.64
- accession number
- 1985.0311
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Prototype Excimer Laser
- Description
- Ralph Burnham and Nick Djeu made this prototype excimer laser in mid-1975 while at the Naval Research Laboratory. A modified carbon-dioxide laser known as a TEA laser (Transversely Excited, Atmospheric pressure), this laser used a mixture of xenon and fluoride gasses to produce a pulse of ultraviolet laser light. Ultraviolet light has a shorter wavelength than visible light and thus a higher energy level.
- The term "excimer" refers to a molecule of two identical atoms that remains stable when in an excited state. The first laser to use such molecules was made in Moscow in 1970 and used molecules consisting of two xenon atoms. Lasers using molecules of differing atoms (technically called an exciplex-laser) were made by several teams of researchers in the US early in 1975. Burnham and Djeu's breakthrough lay in using a commercially available TEA laser to generate the excimer laser pulse. Their apparatus was much smaller and used less energy than prior excimer lasers that were energized by electron-beams.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- ca 1976
- maker
- Naval Research Laboratory
- ID Number
- 1996.0343.01
- accession number
- 1996.0343
- catalog number
- 1996.0343.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Ruby Laser
- Description
- Lasers have served as teaching tools in more ways than one. This ruby laser, made by General Electric (GE), inspired teenager Ebe Helm from New Jersey to learn more about lasers.
- Mr. Helm wrote: "this laser head was originally on display in the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia as part of an electromagnetic spectrum exhibit from GE. It was a working unit that would fire downward on a spool of typewriter ribbon when a button was pushed. The hole it burned could be observed from several angles around its display and through large magnifying lenses arranged over it. ... I first saw this laser on display during a class trip in 1972. The laser had been on display for some years, possibly since the 1960's, and was not working. After it had been removed to a basement store room I managed to talk the Franklin Institute into giving it to me in 1976. I used the components to make an operational ruby laser in 1977 at age 17."
- Mr. Helm donated this laser, and several others, to the Smithsonian in 2005.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1978
- maker
- General Electric Company
- ID Number
- 2005.0034.01
- catalog number
- 2005.0034.01
- accession number
- 2005.0034
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Home-made Laser
- Description
- This carbon-dioxide gas laser was assembled and operated in 1979 by teenager Ebe Helm in the basement of his parent's New Jersey home. As Helm told museum staff, "The laser operated at 9000 volts, 120 milliamps, on alternating current. Because my gas supply was very limited, it functioned as a static, non-flowing gas laser. It did not function at the expected pressure of 4-10 torr, but only above 60 torr, well off the range of the vacuum gage I was using. The target is a building block donated from the nursery school that my mother operated from our home."
- Mr. Helm donated this and other lasers to the Smithsonian in 2005.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- Date made
- 1979
- maker
- Helm, Ebe
- ID Number
- 2005.0034.02
- catalog number
- 2005.0034.02
- accession number
- 2005.0034
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Experimental Ruby Laser
- Description
- This is an experimental ruby laser made in 1963 at Ohio State University. Edward Damon, a researcher at the University’s Antenna Laboratory, made this and several other lasers during his investigation of Theodore Maiman’s successful ruby laser experiments of three years earlier.
- An important part of science consists of replicating the experiments conducted by other researchers and confirming their results. Like Maiman's 1960 laser, Damon's 1963 laser used a photographer's helical flashlamp to energize the ruby crystal. It demonstrated the use of mirrors external to the ruby rod instead of mirrors deposited in the crystal itself. The mirrors are on adjustable mounts that allowed Damon to make a variety of experiments with this unit.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1963
- ID Number
- 2009.0228.01
- accession number
- 2009.0228
- catalog number
- 2009.0228.01
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Experimental Ruby Laser
- Description
- This is an experimental ruby laser made in 1963 at Ohio State University. Edward Damon, a researcher at the University’s Antenna Laboratory, made this and several other lasers during his investigation of Theodore Maiman’s ruby laser experiments of three years earlier.
- In addition to replicating Maiman's 1960 experiments, Damon wished to explore variations of the ruby laser. Unlike Maiman's laser, this laser does not use a spiral flashlamp to energize the ruby crystal. Instead, Damon placed three linear flashlamps parallel to the rod-shaped laser crystal. Firing these lamps simultaneously provided energy to the crystal. The laser also demonstrates a water cooling technique still used in some lasers today.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1963
- ID Number
- 2009.0228.02
- accession number
- 2009.0228
- catalog number
- 2009.0228.02
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Maser Focusing Assembly
- Description
- This object, the focusing assembly from the second maser, was made at Columbia University in 1954 by a team led by physicist Charles H. Townes. Maser stands for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Masers operate on the same principals as lasers, but they amplify microwaves instead of light. In fact, masers came first. Microwaves have lower energy levels than light and so were easier to produce, although the maser was not a simple invention.
- After working on microwave radar and other devices during the Second World War, Townes undertook investigations of microwave spectroscopy at Columbia University. Working with James Gordon and Herbert Zeigler, he successfully demonstrated an ammonia-beam maser in April 1954. The unit was quite large so Townes developed a smaller unit later that year, several pieces of which were donated to the Smithsonian in 1965.
- Location
- Currently not on view
- date made
- 1954
- associated date
- 1953
- maker
- Townes, Charles H.
- ID Number
- EM*323893
- catalog number
- 323893
- accession number
- 260038
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
Sample of Plutonium-239
- Description
- The discovery of nuclear fission in uranium, announced in 1939, allowed physicists to advance with confidence in the project of creating "trans-uranic" elements - artificial ones that would lie in the periodic table beyond uranium, the last and heaviest nucleus known in nature. The technique was simply to bombard uranium with neutrons. Some of the uranium nuclei would undergo fission, newly understood phenomenon, and split violently into two pieces. In other cases, however, a uranium-238 nucleus (atomic number 92) would quietly absorb a neutron, becoming a nucleus of uranium-239, which in turn would soon give off a beta-particle and become what is now called neptunium-239 (atomic number 93). After another beta decay it would become Element 94 (now plutonium-239)
- By the end of 1940, theoretical physicists had predicted that this last substance, like uranium, would undergo fission, and therefore might be used to make a nuclear reactor or bomb. Enrico Fermi asked Emilio Segre to use the powerful new 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California at Berkeley to bombard uranium with slow neutrons and create enough plutonium-239 to test it for fission. Segre teamed up with Glenn T. Seaborg, Joseph W. Kennedy, and Arthur C. Wahl in January 1941 and set to work.
- They carried out the initial bombardment on March 3-6, then, using careful chemical techniques, isolated the tiny amount (half a microgram) of plutonium generated. They put it on a platinum disc, called "Sample A," and on March 28 bombarded it with slow neutrons to test for fission. As expected, it proved to be fissionable - even more than U-235. To allow for more accurate measurements, they purified Sample A and deposited it on another platinum disc, forming the "Sample B" here preserved. Measurements taken with it were reported in a paper submitted to the Physical Review on May 29, 1941, but kept secret until 1946. (The card in the lid of the box bears notes from a couple of months later.)
- After the summer of 1941, this particular sample was put away and almost forgotten, but the research that began with it took off in a big way. Crash programs for the production and purification of plutonium began at Berkeley and Chicago, reactors to make plutonium were built at Hanford, Washington, and by 1945 the Manhattan Project had designed and built a plutonium atomic bomb. The first one was tested on July 16, 1945 in the world's first nuclear explosion, and the next was used in earnest over Nagasaki. (The Hiroshima bomb used U-235.)
- Why is our plutonium sample in a cigar box? G.N. Lewis, a Berkeley chemist, was a great cigar smoker, and Seaborg, his assistant, made it a habit to grab his boxes as they became empty, to use for storing things. In this case, it was no doubt important to keep the plutonium undisturbed and uncontaminated, on the one hand, but also, on the other hand, to make it possible for its weak radiations to pass directly into instruments - not through the wall of some closed container. Such considerations, combined probably with an awareness of the historic importance of the sample, brought about the storage arrangement we see.
- Date made
- 1941-05-21
- Associated Date
- 1941-05-29
- referenced
- Segre, Emilio
- Seaborg, Glenn T.
- Kennedy, Joseph W.
- Wahl, Arthur C.
- Lewis, G. N.
- University of California, Berkeley
- maker
- Segre, Emilio
- Seaborg, Glenn
- ID Number
- EM*N-09384
- catalog number
- N-09384
- accession number
- 272669
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History, Kenneth E. Behring Center
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