We have received the following comments about producing energy-efficient lighting equipment:

"We could have done it better."
(David, an engineer)

"The biggest obstacle is overcoming consumer apathy (even antipathy) in the automatic presumption that fluorescent lighting is "bad." Most consumers equate [modern] fluorescent lights with the flickering, green, slow-to-start bulbs they had in their basements and their schools. Convincing them that the fluorescent of today [is different] is an uphill battle. The second obstacle is cost. Fluorescent technology, particularly when dimming is included, is so much more expensive than incandescent that consumers reject it–even if they are capable of factoring-in savings in energy and lamp life."
(David, a manufacturer)

"We are manufacturers of decorative lighting for the commercial and historic marketplace. Energy efficient equipment is second thought in historic reproductions."
(Perry, a manufacturer)

"High pressure sodium remains the most energy-efficient lighting suitable for factories, parking lots, streets, and roadways. The 400-watt lamp at 100 hours generates 125 lumens of yellow-white light per watt of electric power expended, and for 24,000 hours a 'luminous energy' efficiency (average lumens per watt) of greater than 110."
(John, a scientist and engineer)

HISTORICAL MATERIALS:

From Bill, a retired Osram Sylvania scientist, we received copies of the following reports pertaining to the science of high pressure sodium lamps:
–Burke, Joseph E., "The Role of Grain Boundaries During Sintering," August 1956;
–Coble, Robert L., "Sintering Crystalline Solids," in two parts, December 1960.

From Heinz, a retired Westinghouse and Philips research engineer, we received a copy of the following report pertaining to the history of lighting at Westinghouse:
–McNall, John W., "Historical Notes on the Lamp Division and Its Technical Activities," 1969.

PRODUCER QUESTIONS:

#1 - What recent lighting developments do you believe are especially important?

"Compact fluorescent lamps. Improved spectrum fluorescent lamps. Improved geometry incandescent lamps."
(Dee, a manager)

"Dimming fluorescent technology. Light Emitting Diodes"
(David, a manufacturer)

"Our development of longer-life high pressure sodium lamps with reduced mercury content. They do not cycle off and on when near end of service life and are environmentally-safe, containing no mercury or lead."
(John, a scientist and engineer)

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#2 - Have opportunities to conduct undirected, basic research decreased over the past 30 years?

"In large companies, yes. But in smaller start-ups opportunities are increasing."
(Earl, a scientist and engineer)

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#3 - Do you believe there is growing pressure to market products quickly? Does this sometimes or often mean that products needing many years of work are shelved? Give examples to support your view.

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#4 - How have the needs of various lighting users changed, in your experience? Can you provide data on how you determined those needs and how this influences your planning process?

"Consumers are more educated about lighting needs but not necessarily about energy efficiency. To a degree people are willing to spend more and [buy] unusual or specific types of lights, but unfortunately this has not translated into energy awareness."
(David, a manufacturer)

"Users are just starting to demand lighting to the D65 CIE (International Commission on Illumination) standard by asking for 'daylight' under several names."
(Earl, a scientist and engineer)

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#5 - Before the 1970s, improving the efficacy of lighting was only one of many research goals. In your experience, did the increased emphasis on efficacy adversely affect work on other goals?

"Recently, work has concentrated on reducing lamp cost, while still 'making ratings' on energy efficiency."
(John, a scientist and engineer)

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#6 - Can you provide information about the effects of corporate downsizing and globalization on research and development?

"Sylvania was purchased from GTE (a communications company) by Osram (a lamp manufacturer) in 1993. Since then more resources have been made available for lighting research and development at Sylvania, though some work that was in progress was disrupted."
(John, a scientist and engineer)

"I used to work in a corporate research center until the early 1990s and was laid off. I now work for a very small company but have a little more freedom to do a limited amount of basic research."
(Earl, a scientist and engineer)

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#7 - Efficient lighting is increasingly seen as a system involving many integrated components. From your experience, how has this view affected technology development?

"This is an indirect answer. My primary experience is with decorative lighting, which is more residential in nature. Advanced technology usually translates into complex and/or expensive systems that are more suitable for large commercial installations than homes–especially not lower or medium priced homes."
 (David, a manufacturer)

"The high pressure sodium lamp requires a ballast and an igniter, making it less attractive for household use. Smaller electronic ballasts and igniters are not yet practical."
(John, a scientist and engineer)

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#8 - Describe how government actions have affected your efforts to produce efficient lighting. These actions could include research and development efforts, legislation, local energy ordinances, or buying preferences.

"During the 1960s and 70s [our] research to develop new lamp phosphors, new lamp gas discharges, and even lamp envelope materials was closely integrated with laser research funded by the U.S. Department of Defense and NASA. Another example [was] increased emphasis given to deterring urban crime in the 1970s–in response to this need Westinghouse research and development psychologists carried out research aimed at improving lighting systems."
(Dee, a manager)

"Legislation to limit the amount of toxic material in products made the development of the mercury and lead-free lamp essential."
(John, a scientist and engineer)

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#9 - Some technically successful devices have failed to sell; other devices have sold well despite technical problems. Describe your experience with such successes and failures.

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#10 - Have you experienced cases in which research and development in energy-efficient lighting has "cross-fertilized" work in other technologies?

"At the Westinghouse R&D Center research on lasers was integrated with research [into] new lamp phosphors. For example, when the ruby laser was first proposed in 1958 a couple of other scientists and I contacted the experts on lamp phosphors from the Westinghouse Lamp divisions. Later some of these same experts moved from the Lamp divisions to the R&D Center and two of them headed combined laser and lamp research and development groups in the R&D Center for many years."
(Dee, a manager)

"Yes, but it's still classified."
(Earl, a scientist and engineer)

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#11 - How did your everyday use of lighting affect your planning and actions as a producer of lighting devices?

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#12 - From your own experience, give examples of how ideas, information, or complaints from designers, salespeople, and other conveyors of lighting technology have affected efficient lighting research and development.

"Especially in the area of high pressure gas discharge lamps, we worked closely with marketing personnel–applications like stadium lighting and theatrical lighting. Also there were some (possibly still classified) military applications of gas discharge lamps. For those applications, interaction between designers, salespeople, the customer, manufacturing, and researchers was essential."
(Dee, a manager)

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GENERAL QUESTIONS:

#13 - What specific effects did the Energy Crisis of the 1970s have on your work with lighting technology?

"In high school at the time, it began my interest in environmentalism in general."
(David, a manufacturer)

"It created a fire in my belly to produce more efficient lighting for the world."
(Earl, a scientist and engineer)

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#14 - Some energy-efficient lighting products have become associated with problems such as torchier fires, mercury content, and "light pollution." What problems or concerns affected your work with efficient lighting?

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#15 - Adopting efficient lighting seems to require producers, conveyors, and consumers to think about illumination in new ways. Do you see evidence of new approaches to lighting in society at large? Have you, as a producer, changed your own notions about lighting?

"These changes have occurred over long periods of time. Lighting designers have become more efficiency-conscious and [now] locate their lamps in ways that are still effective and attractive but which use less light and energy–even in Las Vegas. Highway intersections are better illuminated, but with fewer lamps. However, consumers still seem to give higher priority to esthetics than they do to efficiency. For example, compact fluorescents are still not predominant, probably because the spectrum is a little too white as compared with incandescents, which are more like candlelight. Examples of ultra-high efficiency lamps which have been rejected by the marketplace for esthetic reasons include low pressure sodium lamps and green phosphor incandescent lamps. Compact halogen lamps are efficient and lend themselves to improved lighting fixture design, but they introduce fire safety issues."
(Dee, a manager)

"YES! The use of the term ‘lumen' was a mistake made by Thomas Edison to solve his marketing problem. He should have chosen sunlight as the standard, not candle-light! Everyone except lighting producers use the D65 Standard or other 'daylight' standards. It is time to redefine the ‘lumen' to have a daylight version called the ‘blumen' (for blue lumen) as the standard lumen does not incorporate any significant measurement of blue or green light."
(Earl, a scientist and engineer)

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#16 - Has your involvement with energy-efficient lighting led you to consider energy issues when you think about other products? Can you give examples?

"Yes. [At] Westinghouse, as the Lamp Divisions became more concerned about higher efficiency, the Westinghouse R&D Center increasingly realized that the same issues were becoming important to other parts of our business–including air conditioning, power generation, transmission, and industrial process control."
(Dee, a manager)

"It is part and parcel of my environmental awareness in designing products–I try to look at the broader picture in terms of life cycle costing, non-toxic finishes, renewable materials, etc. Many of my fixtures now heavily incorporate recycled and/or sustainable materials and safe finishes. Our newer designs often start by finding a new environmentally [sound] material and looking [at] how to use it. Currently we are designing with handmade recycled glass, recycled plastic, a sustainable bio-composite and a recycled corrugated board."
(David, a manufacturer)

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#17 - In your experience, has the environmental movement helped create demand for efficient lighting? Can you cite any specific examples?

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#18 - Are there questions we should be asking that you didn't see on this form? Please be specific, and remember to answer your own question.

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Thank you to everyone who participated!

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