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People became more conscious of mechanically defined time. Like it or not, they had to obey the clocks (and bells) that increasingly segmented their days and regulated their activities. Punctuality—being on time—began to count, even for those not conducting business. And clocklike attributes in a person, especially order and consistent regularity, became middle-class values. |
Factory
The Industrial Revolution profoundly altered ways of work and perceptions of time. The seasonal nature and irregular hours of farm and craft tasks were supplanted by the strict regularity of factory work—organized, measured, and paid for in terms of time. A clock, controlled by factory managers, ticked out the hours, and a bell synchronized the days. Workdays were long, often twelve to fourteen hours, sometimes beginning before sunrise and stretching past sundown. Some workers appreciated the discipline required of them; others resented the relentless demands of the clock.
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| Factory bell, 19th century; used at Davis & Furber, a manufacturer of textile machinery, North Andover, Massachusetts |
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Ticket, 1848; to a ball sponsored by textile workers to mark the start of winter hours, when smoking oil lamps in the mill made for unpleasant working conditions |
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