The Information Revolution in Jefferson's America

Remarks of Dr. David K. Allison to the University of Virginia History Department
May 30, 1996






Under Dr. David K. Allison's dedication and leadership, the Smithsonian Institution has become the world's foremost repository of material and information on the role that information technology plays in shaping our society. Because of his efforts, researchers from around the globe have access to materials and information that previously were largely uncollected.

As chairman of the National Museum of American History's Division of Information Technology & Society Group, Dr. Allison is the Smithsonian's chief chronicler of information technology and its impact on global society. He oversees the Smithsonian's collections of computers, computer-related artifacts, electronic artifacts, graphic arts, photography, and numismatics. Dr. Allison is the chief Smithsonian officer for the Computerworld Smithsonian Awards Program.

Dr. Allison is also the chief curator of the Information Age: People, Information & Technology exhibit. This 14,000-square-foot permanent display chronicles the history of information technology, from the telegraph to today's computers, and explores the impact of technology on our culture and society worldwide. With more than 50 computerized displays, it is the most interactive exhibition in the Smithsonian museums.

Dr. Allison is director of the Museum Reference Center Project, which will make all the museum's collections available electronically to audiences throughout the world. Prior to joining the Smithsonian in 1987, Dr. Allison served as a historian for the Department of Energy and for the Navy Research and Development Laboratories. He holds a Ph.D. in the history of science from Princeton University.

Table of Contents

The Monticello Memoirs Program

Jefferson's Dedication to Reflection

Jefferson's Library

The Library Catalog

Innovations for Reading Books

Technology for Correspondence: The Polygraph

From Jefferson to Today's Information Technology

Would Jefferson be a Computer Enthusiast?

Information Technology and Jeffersonian Ideas

Information Technology and Political Liberty

Information Technology and Religious Freedom

Information Technology and Public Education

Jefferson's Academical Village in the Information Age

Dr. Allison's Remarks

The Monticello Memoirs Program

I am honored to be speaking today at the University of Virginia about the information revolution in Thomas Jefferson's America. I am here as part of an innovative program sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution, Computerworld, the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation, and the University of Virginia. The program is supported by Price Waterhouse Corporation and Novell, Inc. Its goal is to explore how electronic information technology is affecting fundamental tenets and values of our society today.

The program centers on a group of distinguished fellows who have kindly agreed to share their thoughts with each other in private discussion and with all of us in public presentations.

These individuals agreed to participate in the program because they were all intrigued by a question:

If Thomas Jefferson were alive today, what would we tell him about the role of information technology in American democracy?

I believe he would have been excited by our symposium. He would especially have liked the idea of linking private discussions among leaders with public presentations for students at the university he built.

Jefferson's Dedication to Reflection

Gathering, discussing, and sharing ideas was Jefferson's passion. He loved intellectual activity. He was known for having wonderful dinner parties, both in the White House and at Monticello. (1) Indeed, entertaining so strained his budget that it was a major contributor to his lifelong struggle with debt. But he could not have lived his life without good intellectual company.

Jefferson liked small, intimate groups. He so valued maintaining the free flow of discussion that he even designed his dining room at Monticello with a mechanism to bring wine up from the cellar without the interruption of servants. (2) He also had specially designed dumbwaiters--carts with shelves and wheels--to allow guests to serve themselves during the meal. (3) Nor was he given to hierarchical seating based on the social standing of his guests. He followed a democratic approach that encouraged people to sit where they desired and talk freely.

Jefferson's Library

Jefferson tinkered with technology throughout his long life. Among the items that fascinated him most were those that he used for organizing and processing information. He was a bibliophile and spent much of his fortune on books. By his own account, he owned over 2640 volumes by age 40. (4) What I find as fascinating as this number is that Jefferson devoted considerable personal effort to cataloging his collection. This activity eventually served not only himself, but also his country.

In 1815, the British attack on Washington destroyed the Library of Congress. Appalled at the loss, Jefferson offered to sell his personal library to the nation--both to help the country and to relieve some of his personal debt. His library now amounted to some 6,487 volumes. After some debate, Congress finally bought the collection for $23,950. (5)

The Library Catalog

Jefferson's catalog was an essential supplement. In it, he showed himself a true Enlightenment thinker. His system of classification was based on the division of the faculties of the mind into memory, reason, and imagination and the corresponding division of human knowledge into history, philosophy and the fine arts. Here he followed the classification schemes of Francis Bacon and the French Encyclopedists. The catalog remained the basis of the library collections for several decades.

Jefferson's love of books remained strong. Once he had sold his library to the government, he immediately began another at the age of 72. When planning the University of Virginia, he chose to place the library in the dominating central rotunda. In the summer of 1824, at the age of 81, he was spending four or more hours a day choosing books to recommend for the new university library. Eventually, as he wrote his friend James Madison, he listed 6,860 volumes, which he estimated would cost around $24,000. Footnote6

Innovations for Reading Books

Besides collecting books, Jefferson experimented with technology to make reading them easier. The most important room in his intellectual life, his sanctum sanctorum, was his personal cabinet at Monticello, a room that adjoined his bedroom. At the center of the room was an entirely personal mix of tools that made his reading and writing easier. He had a whirligig chair, a Windsor couch, a writing tale with a rotating top, and a revolving bookstand that could hold five volumes simultaneously. (7) The bookstand appears to have been of his own design and to have been made in the joinery at Monticello. He had similar devices in other rooms of the house as well.

Another innovation Jefferson favored was an octagonal table that he used for filing. Each of the eight drawers had several letters on it and was used to hold items in those alphabetical groups. An ingenious mechanism allowed locking one drawer to lock them all. (8)

Technology for Correspondence: The Polygraph

Jefferson published few books or articles, but he was an astonishingly prolific correspondent. During his lifetime, he wrote approximately 20,000 letters. He also drafted hundreds of state papers, reports, and related documents, including many related to his work as founder and later Rector of the University of Virginia.

The technology of his era had little to offer him to ease the drudgery of writing. Yet his hunger for machines that could help him was apparent in his love for a device known as the polygraph. The name is confusing In our usage, "polygraph" is synonymous with a "lie detector," or a device that measures physiological responses to statements from a questioner. But in Jefferson's day, a polygraph was a machine used to make an additional copy or copies of a document as you were writing it.

The polygraph Jefferson used was invented by John Isaac Hawkins and patented in 1803. (9) Charles Willson Peale, the famous Philadelphia artist and museum creator, became fascinated with the device and partnered with Hawkins to manufacture and sell it. Jefferson learned about the polygraph through Peale's tireless promotion and the aid of one of Peale's best customers, architect Benjamin Latrobe. After trying out Latrobe's polygraph, Jefferson first acquired one of his own in 1806. He would use a Polygraph as a principal way to write multiple copies of documents simultaneously for two decades--until his death in 1826.

The polygraph was not the only device available for copying correspondence. More common was the copypress, which worked by dampening either the ink on the original paper or on copy paper, and then pressing the copy paper against the original. But Jefferson favored the polygraph, because it didn't take a second process and because the copy was as clear as the original.

At least when the device worked! The big problem with the polygraph was that it required constant tinkering. Jefferson wrote many letters to Peale about modifications and adjustments to the polygraph. On occasion he would send one of his polygraphs--he bought several from Peale--back for adjustment and further modification. Yet despite problems with the device, Jefferson stuck with it. In 1817, when in retirement and working on his plans for the University of Virginia, Jefferson wrote to his old friend Latrobe:

I write still with Peale's or rather Hawkins' polygraph--the same which I have had since 1803.--It is a little crazy, and has lost its spring which I have not been able to replace so that I write a somewhat different hand with the polygraph from that which I write without it.(10)

Crude though it was, the device continued to help Jefferson in the most central intellectual task of his life: expressing and communicating his ideas to correspondents at home and abroad.

From Jefferson to Today's Information Technology

Reflecting on Jefferson's fascination with these technologies, and on the circumstances of the symposium we have convened over the last several days, I cannot help but wonder what he would think of the revolution in information technology that has occurred since his death.

He actually died within a decade of the beginnings of that revolution: the invention of the electrical telegraph by Samuel Morse. By the 1840s the "lightning lines" of the telegraph were beginning to speed messages all along the Eastern Seaboard, where the Committees of Correspondence so important in Jefferson's days had carried important messages by horseback. The first transatlantic telegraph communications came in the late 1850s, with regular service beginning in the 1860s. Within a century of Jefferson's death, Americans (at least of Jefferson's class), had regular access to the telephone and radio. Within a century and a half, they had added television and the first personal computers. Today computers are being linked together via the Internet, forming an instantaneous global network for moving, processing, and storing information of all kinds.

Would Jefferson be a Computer Enthusiast?

Unquestionably Jefferson would have been interested in this burst of innovation that has profoundly changed the intellectual pursuits that engaged him so deeply. I personally believe that he would have been an "early adapter" of such technologies as a laptop computer, Windows software, and Internet connections. Anyone who spent as much time as he did fiddling with the polygraph would easily have worked through the frustrations of personal computer software. Through his prolific correspondence, Jefferson already lived much of his intellectual life in a "virtual community," and he would have had no trouble exchanging ideas and thoughts with colleagues around the world via E-mail or fax.

What would he have said about database software, that would allow him to handle easily the notes he kept on the weather and the progress of his crops, or to catalog his thousands of books? For that matter, how would he have felt about the ability to access catalogs--or even electronic versions of texts--in libraries around the world from his cabinet at Monticello? I think he would readily have replaced the swiveling bookstand that held 5 volumes with a monitor showing as many books as he desired in windows that he could easily click between.

But perhaps what would have excited Jefferson most is only flourishing now: multimedia technology. Jefferson loved fine music as well as books. He saw music as a significant part of a good education. He was also a consummate architect, surveyor, and draftsman as well as an author and intellectual. Visual imagery was a very important part of his intellectual life. Indeed, in his plan for the " academical village" at the University of Virginia, Jefferson designed and organized the buildings so that their architecture was a significant part of the curriculum. I think he would have relished the challenge of using "virtual reality" tools to bring depth and breadth to the presentation of knowledge.

Although it is interesting to speculate how Jefferson would have responded to computer technology, we can only guess. Who knows? He might have hated it all! Perhaps he would have said that images on phosphor screens were no substitute for reality, or perhaps he would have stubbornly refused to abandon pen and ink for a digital pen or keyboard. We simply can never know.

It is more valuable than speculating about Jefferson the man in modern times to reexamine his living legacy: the ideas and institutions he created that live on in the world of today.

Information Technology and Jeffersonian Ideas

By convening this conference, this gathering of information technology leaders, we are contending that there is a very important interaction going on between basic Jeffersonian ideas and today's electronic information technology. That technology is now so powerful and pervasive that it is no longer merely instrumental--in the way, for example, that the polygraph was for Jefferson. Technology today has become a fundamental factor affecting how we think, communicate, and act.

In what follows, I will explore changes that information technology today is bringing to what Jefferson, in writing his own epitaph, highlighted as his most significant legacies.

Shortly before he died in 1826, Jefferson directed that his tombstone should have the following inscription, and not a word more:

Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, Author of the Declaration of American Independence, of the Statute of Virginia for Religious freedom, and Father of the University of Virginia.


In the Declaration of Independence, Jefferson posited a Lockean foundation for American political liberty. It was based on the idea that all citizens had unalienable natural rights: life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Jefferson argued that governments were instituted to secure and protect these rights. Governments received their power from the consent of the governed, and the governed had the right to revoke that power if the government seriously and continually abused it.

Information Technology and Political Liberty

Jefferson was a firm believer in the need of citizens to monitor government actions and act as necessary to protect their individual rights. He saw this happening through an alert and skeptical citizenry that was not afraid to speak out when the government was headed in the wrong direction. In his day, a vigilant citizenry depended on an active and independent press. In our times, the relationship is being changed drastically by information technology.

With the advent of personal computers and inexpensive networks, information technology is making the operations of politics and government increasingly visible and accessible to members of the public. Database technology, for example, has allowed much easier tracking and processing of information about politics and government. Virtually all public statements of a candidate, as well as his voting records, can be recorded, analyzed, and made part of a campaign. This brings accountability to a much higher level. Candidates can be confronted quickly and accurately with former statements or actions that seem at variance with current promises or plans. When used fairly and not in partisan "attack advertisements," this facility accords well with the "checks and balances" approach to government that Jefferson and other founding fathers espoused.

Linked with the telephone and statistical science, database software has made polling increasingly simple and accurate. With polling, politicians and candidates keep close tabs on what their constituents think about major issues. The founding fathers were all concerned about too much direct democracy because they were concerned about the vagaries of popular opinion. Polling takes direct democracy a step further. Citizens don't even have to vote to influence political decision-making. They only need to express their opinions to a stranger on the phone taking a poll. My guess is that Jefferson and his colleagues would have worried about the continual growth and influence of polling. It does not bear much relation to the reasoned discourse they favored.

They might have looked with greater favor on other changes. In the current presidential and congressional elections, political officials are exploring extensive use of the Internet for the first time. All major presidential candidates and many congressional candidates have mounted web sites. Here they are posting volumes of information about themselves, their positions, and their activities. These can range from campaign position papers to full texts of major speeches, campaign biographies, and voting records. Other organizations have mounted journalistic analyses and comparative information about candidates. Through public bulletin boards, mailing lists, electronic chat rooms and other media, ordinary citizens can also share their views and opinions about politics with thousands or even millions of other voters. Sadly, the culture of many of these forums tends to favor expressing radical or outlandish views rather than serious comments. Even so, the wide variety of information now available means that citizens who want to bypass the media to do their own analysis and make their own judgments about candidates can readily do so.

Not only have electronic media encouraged freer flow of information in the United States, where it is already generally quite open, but also they have brought it to more closed societies. Many people have highlighted the major role that radios, televisions, fax machines, and electronic mail played in the collapse of the Soviet empire and in the Tiananmen Square demonstrations in China in 1989. As such technologies as wireless networks mature, and as costs continue to fall, it seems likely that no society will be able to remain closed to the penetration of ideas and information from around the world. Jefferson would not be surprised that this free flow of information has coincided with a general rise of democratic government based on principles of individual liberty.

While new technologies are making more information available, however, they can also make the process of gathering and using that information a more solitary process. The rise of electronic information technologies, starting with the radio and continuing to the Internet, has paralleled a continuing drop of citizens involved in politics as a community activity. Most voters in the United States today have little or no interest in political parties or other organizations focused on serious political activities. The percentages of eligible voters actually participating in elections remains low year after year. The abundance of information available from central sources may actually overpower citizens more than truly informing them. This abundance makes the issues seem extremely difficult and complex. People come to believe they cannot have a sound position. Then sophisticated polling data makes it seem that elections are already decided anyhow. They come to believe that they can have no significant influence on the political process.

But whether for better or worse, it is clear that information technology continues to transform the way Americans experience political freedom and the ways they participate in the political process. It seems unquestionably that within a few years, the Internet will be as important to politics as radio and television have already become over the last few decades--perhaps even more important, because unlike them, the Internet is interactive.

Recently I interviewed Dr. Vincent Cerf, one of the creators of the network technology that makes the Internet possible. He is deeply convinced that within the next several decades, the Internet will become the universal network, encompassing the telephone system, television, and radio, as well as the current systems of electronic mail, file transfers and the World Wide Web. If that happens, this "universal network" will not only provide a simple and cheap vehicle for moving all forms of electronic communications, but it will also impose more strongly the character and limits of electronic media on the life of humans around the globe.

Information Technology and Religious Freedom

Jefferson was as concerned with religious freedom as he was with political freedom. He was always a religious person with a deep faith in God, and a deep commitment to Christian morality. He believed that American society could not long endure if most citizens did not subscribe to such principles.

However, he loathed most aspects of organized religion. He believed that no religion should be officially sanctioned and supported by the state. He hated creeds and doctrines to which church members were asked to give blind obedience. He did not think that men should be expected to exercise their God-given faculties of judgment and reason in all areas except religion. Jefferson was well aware of the role religion had played in many wars in Western society over the previous centuries, and he believed that in a free, democratic state, religious and civic affairs needed to be separated. The Virginia statute for religious freedom stated:

We the General Assembly of Virginia do enact that no man shall be compelled to frequent or support any religious worship, place, or ministry whatsoever, nor shall be enforced, restrained, molested, or burthened in his body or goods, nor shall otherwise suffer, on account of his religious opinions or belief; but that all men shall be free to profess, and by argument to maintain, their opinions in matters of religion and that the same shall in no wise diminish, enlarge, or affect their civil capacities.(11)

When planning for the curriculum at the University of Virginia, Jefferson thought that the beliefs of all Christian religions should be presented, not just those of a single denomination. Moreover, he thought that religious principles should be taught by a professor of ethics, not a professor of divinity. Then students could examine the foundation of many religions, not just one, and understand the role of religion in society as the foundation of morality, law, and obligation of citizens to the state and each other.

Modern information technology has played a major role in shaping the evolution of religion in society in recent decades. It has helped accomplish Jefferson's task of making multiple voices about religion available to all citizens. Religious broadcasters were among the first to capitalize on the power of radio. Television proved an even more attractive medium for religious communication. Religious programs have always been a regular, if periodic feature of network television. The coming of cable television opened new opportunities for much more regular religious programming.

Yet while electronic broadcasting provided means for multiple channels for religious information, most programs tended more towards dogmatic preaching than the sort of open, reasonable discussion that Jefferson believed was appropriate for religion in a democratic state. I think he might have been as unhappy with the "700 Club" on cable television as he was with the idea of officially sanctioned religion in Virginia.

In the last few years, however, the Internet has provided many opportunities for wide-ranging discussion about religion. It is among the most popular topics on the Internet. One directory lists over 3,000 sites on the World Wide Web for sharing information about religion. These range from sites for established denominations like Jefferson's own Episcopalian Church to sites for Buddhists and even personal religions. Sites for electronic discussions like Christianity Today in America Online have thousands of participants from all over the world.

Jefferson would have been happy that the dogmatism of the clergy had to give way to discussion by ordinary people. Yet he would probably also have been disappointed at the quality of much of the discourse. He believed that citizens should go so far as to learn Greek, Hebrew, and Latin and read religious texts in the original before they formed serious opinions about various sects. That is, of course, what he himself did. Yet few people who frequent the web discussion forums go that far. Even so, I think Jefferson would have been pleased to see the healthy debate that goes on night after night about religion and its role in American social life.

But just as with politics, electronic interchanges about religion have a fundamental problem. They lack real community context. Religious views are only meaningful when they become part of communal life. It is interesting to discuss ideas about religion with people around the world, but more important is knowing what the people in one's own neighborhood, school, and workplace believe. In America today, open discussion of the role of religious views in these contexts is largely taboo.

Perhaps one reason the discussions in cyberspace are so lively is that they provide a safe place to talk that is indeed abstracted from community life, and sheltered from the eyes of neighbors and coworkers who can't connect screen names with real names. Legal and social restrictions based on the "separation of church and state" have been interpreted as the separation of secular and spiritual life in ways that regularly inhibit open communal discussion of religious ethics and social responsibility. Jefferson would never have believed that discussions in cyberspace could take the place of those deliberations.

Information Technology and Public Education

Nothing fascinates me about Jefferson more than his untiring devotion and effort to establish the University of Virginia after he retired from the Presidency of the United States. In my lifetime, only President Jimmy Carter has shown such devotion to serving his country. I deeply admire both men for establishing models of public service that more of our national leaders should emulate.

Jefferson recognized that to maintain the representative democracy he had done so much to create, citizens needed to be educated. Primary education should give all citizens knowledge of "their rights, interests and duties as men and citizens." (12) Higher education should

develop the reasoning faculties of our youth, enlarge their minds, cultivate their morals, and instill into them the precepts of virtue and order...and generally...form them to habits of reflection and correct action, rendering them examples of virtue to others, and of happiness within themselves. (13)

Jefferson's vision for the university he created to accomplish these lofty goals centered on the idea of an "academical village." This was not only an educational program, it was a place, a true physical as well as intellectual community of learning. Architecturally, the academical village was an ensemble of pavilions, rooms, hotels, alleys and gardens. They were arranged in a large U-shaped configuration anchored by a great rotunda, which housed the university library and central lecture rooms. The Academical Village mirrored the original curriculum of the University, which Jefferson also defined. It included not only traditional studies of ancient languages and moral philosophy, but also the newer disciplines of natural history and medicine. Political philosophy was a critical subject of instruction, for Jefferson believed that only proper education would prepare leaders the United States needed for its future. No doubt he expected that many future statesmen would be molded in the pavilions he designed and built.

Of the three areas I have addressed today: political freedom, religious freedom, and now education, none has been more affected by electronic information technology than education. And none seems more likely to be further changed in the future. Since the early 20th century, communications and computer technologies have fundamentally changed research and teaching in the natural sciences. Numerical methods of calculation and analysis have allowed scientists to open whole new areas of inquiry, such as radio and radar astronomy, and to make remarkable progress in traditional areas, such as physics and medicine.

Today virtually no scientist works without computer technology to help conduct research, analyze data, and visualize results. Moreover, scientists communicate the outcome of their research to communities connected by electronic mail and video teleconferencing. They even build databases of results that can be shared immediately with colleagues around the world.

Changes have come more slowly in the humanities, but they are now sweeping most fields there as well. Advanced instruction in foreign languages has long been facilitated with information technology. Machine translations and analyses grow in power and sophistication every day. Literary critics can learn remarkable things with computerized analysis of authors' writing style and literary structure.

As a historian, I am constantly amazed by the changes that have occurred in my own work just in the last decade. I now have immediate access from my living room to libraries all over the world. Initially this was access only to catalogs, but it is rapidly growing to include access to full text sources. And slowly it is including access to images, sound, and video as well.

I have replaced the laborious and faulty process of recopying source documents on note cards with computerized cut and paste. Personal computer databases let me analyze and graph materials I never would have taken the time to study systematically before. I write on a portable laptop computer virtually anywhere I want, and share my thoughts quickly with others--in multimedia form as well as text. I am proud to be helping the Smithsonian use electronic information technology to open the doors to its vast treasure of cultural objects and information. The results of this symposium itself will also soon be available on the web.

Compared to individual research and publication, teaching is changing more gradually. Many people believe that nothing can ever replace the intimate human connection that should exist between teachers and students, a connection through which teachers share nuances of interpretation and styles of thinking as well as raw information, and in which they provide encouragement, support, and empathy for students. But change is certainly coming there as well. Many universities, such as the University of Phoenix, now have a sizable on-line course and degree program. Among other advantages, this allows the university to reach students of all ages, making it possible for working adults truly to become lifelong learners. John Sperling, who helped create the program at Phoenix, recently told me that contrary to expectations, students in the on-line courses actually communicated more with their classroom colleagues than students who sat together in a lecture hall.

Last week I visited West Virginia, which of course was a part of Virginia in Jefferson's day, and interviewed Governor Gaston Caperton. For the eight years of his governorship, he has put a very high priority on putting computers in school classrooms, starting with kindergarten classes and moving up. He has made his state a national leader in this effort. West Virginia now has over 17,000 computers in classrooms and hundreds of public schools on the Internet. Teachers are finding that computers do not replace them in class, but actually provide a balance to their personal instruction. Teachers tend to split classes into groups, letting some work on the computer doing research or instruction drills, while they work with others in small groups or individually. In general, both student interest and performance are up sharply.

Here at the University of Virginia, as you all probably know better than I, there is great interest in using advanced information technology more effectively. The library is pioneering the creation and dissemination of electronic texts, and the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities is examining many ways that computerized tools can enhance research, learning, and teaching. I have been following progress here from my office via the Internet, as people can throughout the world.

Jefferson's Academical Village in the Information Age

Part of the discussion these days is thinking about how the university can reconceive Jefferson's Academical Village in the 21st century using advanced information technology. One Saturday morning not long ago, I met with the staff of the institute and they explained some of the thinking. They told me that instead of devising lots of detailed plans at the moment, they are reflecting on the metaphor of the academical village; that is Jefferson's living legacy. We all know that fundamentally, Jefferson got it right. Education is a community activity that must bring together students, professors, knowledge, and habits of life and study into the right combinations of personal and intellectual interaction.

In Jefferson's day, information technology played only a minor role in that process. Gutenberg's printing press had fundamentally affected it, but not much else. Today, however, information technology is radically challenging the foundation of what an academical village should be, just as it is changing how citizens relate to their rights of political freedom and freedom of religion. Watching how the changes play out over the coming decades would have greatly interested the Sage of Monticello. And there will be no more interesting place for doing this than the halls of the university he created.


Footnote1

Merrill D. Peterson, Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation (New York: Oxford, 1970):421

Footnote2

Susan R. Stein, The Worlds of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1993), p. 79.

Footnote3

Ibid., p. 82.

Footnote4

Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time: The Sage of Monticello (New York: Little Brown 1981), p. 169ff, Peterson, Op. Cit., p. 943.

Footnote5

Ibid., p. 176-177.

Footnote6

Malone, Op. Cit., pp. 401-402.

Footnote7

Stein, Op. Cit., p. 104.

Footnote8

Silvio A. Bedini, Thomas Jefferson and His Copying Machines (Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 1984), p. 170.

Footnote9

Ibid., passim.

Footnote10

Ibid., p. 172.

Footnote11

Thomas Jefferson, Writings, ed. by Merrill D. Peterson (New York: Library of America, 1984), p. 347.

Footnote12

Ibid,. p. 459.

Footnote13

Ibid., p. 460.


AnnotationDKA.1


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