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Webnotes 7-1 to 7-6

Webnote 7-1   |   Webnote 7-2   |   Webnote 7-3

Webnote 7-4   |   Webnote 7-5    |   Webnote 7-6


Webnote 7-1

About the halogen cycle:

The halogen cycle describes a complex chemical interaction between tungsten, oxygen and a halide that makes tungsten halogen lamps possible. Incandescent lamps operate by using an electric current to heat a filament so that it glows. Edison and later inventors needed to cope with material that evaporated from the hot filament since this material would build-up on the inner bulb-wall and darken the lamp. This "lamp blackening" becomes even more severe when the filament is situated near the bulb-wall, as in thin tubular lamps. The halogen cycle prevents lamp blackening but does not, by itself, make these lamps more energy efficient.

Halogen lamp before and after operation of halogen cycle, about 1960
The same lamp before and after
operation of the halogen cycle
S.I. image #99-4111

In brief, the cycle works like this:

Step 1: Tungsten atoms evaporate from the hot filament and diffuse toward the cooler bulb wall. The filament temperature is about 3030o Celsius (or about 5480o Farenheit). The temperature at the bulb wall is about 730o C (or about 1340o F).

Step 2: Tungsten, oxygen and halogen atoms combine on or near the bulb-wall (exactly where is still uncertain) to form tungsten oxyhalide molecules. Originally, iodine was the halogen used but today bromine is more common. Chlorine is used in some special photocopying lamps that operate only for brief intervals. Fluorine has been researched extensively for many years but is not used in commercial lamps.

Step 3: Tungsten oxyhalides remain in a vapor phase at the bulb-wall temperatures and this vapor moves toward the hot filament. A combination of diffusion and convection currents are responsible for the movement.

Step 4: High temperatures near the filament break the tungsten oxyhalide molecules apart. The oxygen and halogen atoms move back toward the bulb wall and the tungsten atoms re-deposit on the filament. The cycle then repeats.

It is important to note that the tungsten does not return to the exact spot from which it evaporated, but rather re-deposits on cooler areas of the filament. Breakage usually occurs where the filament connects to the molybdenum lead-in wire, as the temperature drops sharply at that point. (The halide fluorine can return tungsten to the hottest parts of a filament, holding the promise of a true regenerative cycle. Unfortunately, fluorine also attacks the cooler areas of the filament. Experiments to resolve that problem continue.)

Because tungsten is cleaned from the inner bulb-wall, halogen lamps can be operated at higher temperatures than ordinary incandescent lamps. Energy efficiency (or "efficacy") is due to the higher temperature–the hotter an incandescent lamp operates the more efficacious is becomes. Likewise, the longer life ratings of tungsten halogen lamps stem not from the presence of halogens but rather are a function of the higher pressures at which these lamps operate.

For a diagram of the halogen cycle, see Tungsten Halogen Lamps in our Technology Files.

Special thanks to Dr. Edward Zubler for information about the halogen cycle.

Sources of information about tungsten-halogen lamps:

  • Kane, Raymond, and Heinz Sell, eds., Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress, (New York: Upword Publishing Co., 1997).

  • Allen, Carl J., and Ronald L. Paugh, "Applications of the Quartz Lighting Lamp" in Illuminating Engineering, December 1959, V.54, #12, p.741.
  • Hoegler, L. E., and Terry K. McGowan, "Practical High Efficiency Tungsten-Halogen Lamps Using IR Reflecting Films," in Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, October 1984, V.14, #1, p.165.
  • Masters, Brooke A., "Fires Turn Up Heat On Halogen Lamps," in The Washington Post, 20 April 1998, B5.
  • T'jampens, G. R., and M. H. A. van de Weijer, "Gas-Filled Incandescent Lamps Containing Bromine and Chlorine," in Philips Technical Review, July 1966, V. 27, #7, p.173.
  • van Tijen, J. W., "Iodine Incandescent Lamps: I. Principle," and J. J. Balder, "Iodine Incandescent Lamps: II. Possible Applications," in Philips Technical Review, February/March 1962, V.23, #8/9, p.237, 242.
  • Zubler, Edward G., and Frederick A. Mosby, "An Iodine Incandescent Lamp with Virtually 100 Per Cent Lumen Maintenance" in Illuminating Engineering, December 1959, V.54, #12, p.734 .

  • United States Patent #2,864,025 to Alton Foote and William Hodge, 1958.
  • United States Patent #2,883,571 to Elmer G. Fridrich and Emmett H. Wiley, 1959.

  • Elmer Fridrich Collection, 1996.0147, National Museum of American History.
  • Edward Zubler Collection, 1996.0082, National Museum of American History.

  • Interview, Frederick Mosby by Harold Wallace, Jr., 8 March 1996, 1 audio cassette.
  • Interview, Gilbert Reiling and Elmer Fridrich by Harold Wallace, Jr., 1 March 1996, 3 audio cassettes.
  • Interview, Edward Zubler by Harold Wallace, Jr., 6 March 1996, 1 audio cassette.

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Webnote 7-2

Sources of information about metal-halide lamps:

  • Cayless, M.A., and A.M. Marsden, eds., Lamps and Lighting, 3rd ed., (London: Arnold, 1983).
  • Elenbaas, Willem, Light Sources, (London: MacMillan, 1972), or (Eindhoven: Philips, 1972).
  • Kane, Raymond, and Heinz Sell, eds., Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress, (New York: Upword Publishing Co., 1997).
  • Waymouth, John, Electric Discharge Lamps, (Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press, 1971).

  • Campbell, John H., "Initial Characteristics of High-Intensity Discharge Lamps on High-Frequency Power," in Illuminating Engineering, December 1969, V.64, #12, p.713.
  • Martt, E. C., L. J. Smialek, and A. C. Green, "Iodides in Mercury Arcs - for Improved Color and Efficacy," in Illuminating Engineering, January 1964, V.59, #1, p.34.
  • Reiling, Gilbert H., "Characteristics of Mercury Vapor - Metallic Iodide Arc Lamps," in Journal of the Optical Society of America, April 1964, V.54, #4, p.532.

  • United States Patent #1,020,323 to Charles P. Steinmetz, 1912.
  • West German Patent #833,221 to Otto Neunhoeffer and Paul Schulz, 1952.
  • West German Patent #1,184,008 to Bernhard Kühl and Horst Krense, 1964.
  • United States Patent #3,234,421 to Gilbert H. Reiling, 1966.

  • Gilbert Reiling Collection, 1996.0084, National Museum of American History.

  • Interview, Gilbert Reiling and Elmer Fridrich by Harold Wallace, Jr., 1 March 1996, 3 audio cassettes.
  • Telephone interviews, John Waymouth by Harold Wallace, Jr., 18 and 20 March 1996, not recorded.

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Webnote 7-3

Sources of information about high-pressure sodium lamps:

  • Cayless, M.A., and A.M. Marsden, eds., Lamps and Lighting, 3rd ed., (London: Arnold, 1983).
  • Elenbaas, Willem, Light Sources, (London: MacMillan, 1972), or (Eindhoven: Philips, 1972).
  • Kane, Raymond, and Heinz Sell, eds., Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress, (New York: Upword Publishing Co., 1997).
  • Waymouth, John, Electric Discharge Lamps, (Cambridge, MA.: The MIT Press, 1971).

  • Burke, Joseph E., "The Lucalox Lamp," GE Research & Development Center, Technical Information Series #67-C-287, August 1967.
  • Burke, Joseph E., "Lucalox Alumina: The Ceramic That Revolutionized Outdoor Lighting," in MRS Bulletin, June 1996, p.61.
  • Campbell, John H., "Initial Characteristics of High-Intensity Discharge Lamps on High-Frequency Power," in Illuminating Engineering, December 1969, V.64, #12, p.713.
  • Coble, Robert L., and Joseph E. Burke, "Sintering in Ceramics," in Progress in Ceramic Science, 1963, V.3, p.197.
  • Hanneman, R. E., W. C. Louden, and C.I. McVey, "Thermodynamic and Experimental Studies of the High-Pressure Sodium Lamp," in Illuminating Engineering, March 1969, V.64, #3, p.162.
  • Louden, William C., and Kurt Schmidt, "High-Pressure Sodium Discharge Arc Lamps," in Illuminating Engineering, December 1965, V.60, #12, p.696.
  • Louden, William C.(?), "Lucalox® Lamp," nd., c1967, (paper donated by Louden at time of 1996 interview).
  • Loytty, Eric, "A new arc tube for HPS lamps," in Lighting Design and Application, February 1976, p.14.

  • United States Patent #2,971,110 to Kurt Schmidt, 1961.
  • United States Patent #3,026,210 to Robert Coble, 1962.

  • Joseph Burke Collection, 1998.0111, National Museum of American History.
  • Osram Sylvania Collection, 1998.0005, National Museum of American History.

  • William Louden File, Lighting Research Collection. Electricity Collection, National Museum of American History.

  • Interview, William Louden by Harold Wallace, Jr., 8 March 1996, 2 audio cassettes.
  • Telephone interview, Joseph Burke by Harold Wallace, Jr., 8 January 1998, not recorded.
  • Telephone interview, Gerald Meiling by Harold Wallace, Jr., 4 February 1997, not recorded.
  • Telephone interview, James Sarver by Harold Wallace, Jr., 2 July 1996, not recorded.

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Webnote 7-4

Sources of information about compact fluorescent lamps:

  • Kane, Raymond, and Heinz Sell, eds., Revolution in Lamps: A Chronicle of 50 Years of Progress, (New York: Upword Publishing Co., 1997).

  • Anderson, John M., "Electrodeless Fluorescent Lamps Excited by Solenoidal Electric Fields," in Illuminating Engineering, April 1969, V.64, #4, p.236.
  • Beardsley, Chuck, "And now, the Hollister lamp," in Lighting Design & Application, April 1976, p.48.
  • Campbell, John H., "Anatomy and Electrical Characteristics of a New Fluorescent Lamp," in Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, October 1972, V.2, #1, p.3.
  • Cohen, Sheppard, and James N. Lester, "The Effects of the Compact Fluorescent Lamp on its Auxiliaries," in Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, Summer 1988, V.17, #2, p.8.
  • Gross, Leo, and S.M. Skeist, "Feasibility Claimed for Handy Fluorescent," in Lighting Design & Application, December 1979, p.31.
  • Murayama, S., H. Matsuno, Y. Watanabe, T. Ono, K. Hosoya, T. Hirota "Compact Lamp with Two Interior Fluorescent Tubes," in Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, October 1984, V.14, #1, p.298.
  • Note, "Philips introduces experimental fluorescent lamp," in Lighting Design & Application, October 1976, p.48 (Hasker recombinate structure lamp).
  • Roche, William J., "Theory, Design, and Application of Single-Socket Single-Electrode Fluorescent Lamps," in Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, October 1973, V.3, #1, p.65.
  • Siminovitch, Michael, and Evan Mills, "Dedicated CFL Fixtures for Residential Lighting," in Lighting Design & Application, March 1995, p.28.
  • Stepler, Richard, "Energy-saving lighting," Popular Science, September 1980, p.125.
  • Verstegen, J.M.P.J., "A Survey of a Group of Phosphors, Based on Hexagonal Aluminate and Gallate Host Lattices," in Journal of the Electrochemical Society, December 1974, V.121, #12, p.1623.
  • Verstegen, J.M.P.J., D. Radielovi, and L.E. Vrenkin, "A New Generation of 'Deluxe' Fluorescent Lamps, Combining an Efficacy of 80 Lumens/W or More with a Color Rendering Index of Approximately 85," in Journal of the Electrochemical Society, December 1974, V.121, #12, p.1627. See also, discussion of this article between the authors and William Thornton, June 1975, V.122, #6, p.842.
  • Watanabe, Yoshio, Mikiya Yamane, and Shinkichi Tanimizu, "Single-ended Compact Fluorescent Lamp with Multi-arc Caused by Anode Oscillations," in Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society, July 1982, V.11, #4, p.216.
  • Young, R.G., and E.W. Morton, "A compact partition fluorescent lamp," in Lighting Design & Application, May 1980, p.38.

  • United States patent #2,200,951 to Willem Elenbaas, 1940.
  • United States patent #3,500,118 to John Anderson, 1970.
  • United States patent #3,849,689 to John Campbell, 1971.
  • United States patent #3,763,392 to Donald Hollister, 1973.
  • United States patent #3,849,699 to William Roche, 1973.
  • United States patent #3,903,447 to R. Gaines Young and Allen Reed, 1975.
  • United States patent #4,187,446 to Leo Gross and Merrill Skeist, 1980.
  • United States patent #4,196,374 to Harald Witting, 1980.

  • Department of Energy Collection, 1992.0466, National Museum of American History.
  • General Electric CR&D Collection, 1998.0050, National Museum of American History.
  • Edward Hammer Collection, 1997.0212, National Museum of American History.
  • Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Collection, 1992.0553, National Museum of American History.
  • Philips (US) Collection, 1997.0389, National Museum of American History.

  • Interview, John Anderson, George Cotsas, Sayed-Amr El-Hamamsy, Victor Roberts, and George Wise by Harold Wallace, Jr., 29 October 1996, 2 audio cassettes.
  • Interview, Eugene Graf and Steve Goldmacher by Harold Wallace, Jr., 28 October 1996, 1 audio cassette.
  • Interview, Edward Hammer by Harold Wallace, Jr., 25 March 1997, 1 audio cassette.
  • Interview, William Roche by Harold Wallace, Jr., 31 October 1996, 1 audio cassette.
  • Telephone interview, Donald Hollister by Harold Wallace, Jr., 11 December 1995, not recorded.
  • Telephone interview, Maxine Savitz by Harold Wallace, Jr., 28 November 1995, not recorded.
  • Telephone interview, Merrill Skeist by Harold Wallace, Jr., 26 March 1999, not recorded.
  • Telephone interview, R. Gaines Young by Harold Wallace, Jr., 26 October 1995, not recorded.

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Webnote 7-5

Sources of information about silica carbide lamps:

  • Aldington, J.N., "Lamps and Lighting - A Vision of the Future," in Illuminating Engineering, February 1953, V.48, #2, p.82.
  • "Ceramic Filaments for Higher Lamp Efficiency," in EPRI Journal, September 1993, p.4.
  • Gomes de Mesquita, A.H., "The Polytypism of Silicon Carbide," in Philips Technical Review, February 1969, V.30, #2, p.36.
  • Knippenberg, W.F., H.B. Haanstra, and J.R.M. Dekkers, "Crystal Growth of Silicon Carbide," in Philips Technical Review, December 1962, V.24, #6, p.181.
  • Knippenberg, W. F., "Growth Phenomena in Silicon Carbide," in Philips Research Reports, 1963, V.18, p.161.
  • Knippenberg, W.F., and H.B. Haanstra, "Crystal Growth of Silicon Carbide (II)," in Philips Technical Review, July 1965, #7, p.187.
  • Knippenberg, W.F., and G. Verspui, "Crystal Growth of Silicon Carbide (III)," in Philips Technical Review, August 1968, V.29, #8/9, p.252.
  • Van Maaren, A.C., O. Schob, and W. Westerveld, "Boron Filament: A Light, Stiff, and Strong Material," in Philips Technical Review, May 1975, V.35, #5, p.126.

  • United States Patent #3,622,272 to James Shyne and John Milewski, 1971.
  • United States Patent #4,543,030, to John Milewski, 1985.
  • United States Patent #4,864,186 to John and Peter Milewski, 1989.

  • John Milewski Collection, 1992.0554, National Museum of American History.
  • John Milewski Collection, 1996.0358, National Museum of American History.

  • Department of Energy File, Lighting Research Collection. Electricity Collection, National Museum of American History.

  • Telephone interviews, John Milewski by Harold Wallace, Jr., 16 April, 7 May, 1 October 1996, and 5 May 1997, not recorded.

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Webnote 7-6

Sources of information about sulfur lamps:

  • Gleason, William S., "High Stability Electrodeless Discharge Lamps," in The Review of Scientific Instruments, November 1971, V.42, #11, p.1638.
  • Turner, B.P., M.G. Ury, Y. Leng, and W.G. Love, "Sulfur Lamps -- Progress In Their Development," paper presented at the IES annual meeting, August 1995.
  • Whitehead, L.A. R.A. Nodwell, and F.L. Curzon, "New Efficient Light Guide for Interior Illumination," in Applied Optics, 1 August 1982, V.21, #15, p.2755.

  • United States patent #3,911,318 issued to Donald Spero, Bernard Eastlund, and Michael Ury, 1975.
  • United States patent #3,943,401 thru 404 issued to Paul Haugsjaa, Robert Regan, and William McNeill, 1976.
  • United States patent #4,859,906 issued to Michael Ury, and Charles Wood, 1989.
  • United States patent #5,334,913 issued to Michael Ury, and Charles Wood, 1994.
  • United States patent #5,404,076 issued to James Dolan, Michael Ury, and Charles Wood, 1995.

  • Department of Energy Collection, 1996.0314, National Museum of American History.
  • Fusion Systems Collections, 1992.0467 and 1996.0359, National Museum of American History.

  • Fusion Systems / Lighting File, Lighting Research Collection. Electricity Collection, National Museum of American History.

  • Interview, Michael Ury by Harold Wallace, Jr., 20 March 1996, 1 audio cassette.
  • Interview, Michael Ury, Frank Sowers, and Yongzhang Leng by Harold Wallace, Jr., 11 October 1996, 1 audio cassette.

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